Flavius Josephus
The Jewish War, also known as The Wars of the Jews, is a comprehensive historical account detailing the major conflict between the Jewish nation and the Roman Empire.
Composed by Flavius Josephus, a Hebrew priest who initially fought against the Romans before being present at subsequent events, this work aims to provide an accurate truth of the facts, contrasting with other accounts that offered flattery to the Romans or hatred towards the Jews.
The war, described as the greatest of all conflicts of its time and possibly of all time, was influenced by significant disorder within the Roman Empire following the death of Nero, which encouraged Jewish factions to pursue innovations and royal power.
The Context of the Conflict:
##### Jewish Internal Strife and Roman Power
The war, considered the greatest of its time. Prior to the outbreak of the Jewish War in A.D. 66, the 1st century presented a complex interplay between Roman authority, diverse Jewish communities, and an emerging Christian movement.
The Roman Empire maintained control over Judea, appointing procurators such as Felix, Festus, and Albinus, with a significant Roman military presence stationed near the temple cloisters in Jerusalem during festivals to monitor and prevent unrest. Caesar Augustus was the Roman emperor around the time of Herod's death.
Early in this period, some Jews in Cesarea had even obtained the city's governance from Nero, illustrating a degree of interaction and influence within the Roman system, yet they were obligated to pay tribute to Caesar.
The Jewish population was geographically widespread, with significant communities extending beyond Euphrates into Parthia, Babylonia, remotest Arabia, and Adiabene. Internally, various factions and movements existed, including the "innovators," and groups like the Zealots and Sicarii. The Sicarii, described as robbers, were particularly active in Jerusalem during festivals, using concealed daggers to attack their enemies.
Among the philosophic sects of the Jews were the Essens, known for refusing to swear oaths, and the Sadducees, whose internal interactions were described as unruly and uncivil.
During the apostolic age, converts to Christianity were readily accepted and baptized immediately upon declaring their faith, driven by missionary zeal and the expectation of the world's end. There was no requirement for formal training before reception into the faith at this early stage, and early Christians often offered prayers privately or within family and close friend circles, especially due to persecutions.
Jewish Motives Leading to War:
##### Desire for Liberty and Resistance to Roman Rule:
The Jewish people were largely driven by a strong desire for independence. They yearned to "recover that ancient liberty which their forefathers had enjoyed", feeling it was wrong to live under Roman control - a deep conviction that God alone should be their master, combined with a strong yearning for self-rule, pushed many Jews to reject Roman authority and fight for what they saw as their inherent freedom
##### Religious Offence and Zealotry:
Roman officials took their holy money: Procurator Florus provocatively took sacred treasures from the Temple. This was a major offense. In Caesarea, someone sacrificed birds at a Jewish synagogue, which was seen as a pollution and a huge affront to their laws. A Roman soldier at the Temple made a very indecent gesture towards the Jews during a religious festival.
A crucial decision stopped foreign offerings: Eleazar, the son of a high priest, made a significant decision that was declared "the true beginning of our war with the Romans". He stopped accepting "gifts or sacrifices for any foreigner in the Temple", which included the customary offerings for the Roman Emperor Caesar. Many high priests and leading men tried to persuade him not to do this, but they couldn't convince him.
Zealots' violent actions: A group known as the Zealots, driven by intense religious passion, committed violent acts and, in their fighting, even defiled the Temple itself with bloodshed
##### Internal Factionalism and Innovation:
The Jewish state was afflicted by "tyranny of their own leaders" and "innovation-minded" factions who sought widespread insurrection. These internal divisions, including conflicts between different Jewish groups like the Zealots and Sicarii, were so severe that they inflicted "greater misery upon the Jewish populace than the Roman actions", leading to widespread "rapine, murder, and sacrilege".
##### Misinterpretation of Prophecy:
Many Jews were encouraged to undertake the war by an "ambiguous oracle" in their sacred writings, which they misinterpreted to mean that "about that time, one from their country should become governor of the habitable earth".
##### Prosperity and Confidence:
The Jewish nation, particularly Jerusalem, was described as being in a "flourishing condition for strength and riches". This prosperity and perceived strength contributed to their confidence and ambition for independence. Leaders like John of Gischala amassed significant wealth through means such as trade and corruption, which he then used to further his wicked designs and fight for power. This financial and military strength fostered a belief that they could succeed in a widespread insurrection, even hoping for support from Jews beyond the Euphrates
Roman Motives Leading to War:
##### Maintaining Control and Suppressing Rebellion:
The Romans viewed the growing unrest as a challenge to their authority and a "revolt". Their primary motivation was to "restrain the promoters of the sedition", quell disturbances, and re-establish "good order".
##### Roman Military Superiority and Conduct
The Roman army is consistently depicted with exceptional discipline, good order, and formidable strength. Their commanders, such as Vespasian and Titus, displayed strategic prowess.
Vespasian was appointed general by Nero due to fears concerning the war's outcome. Titus, the elder son of Vespasian, conducted the siege of Jerusalem. Roman efforts were marked by precision in encampment, battle formation, and engineering works for siege operations.
While they displayed immense military might, Titus, in particular, showed periods of leniency and a desire to preserve the city and temple. He offered peace and security to deserters and even sought to spare the innocent from the consequences of the seditious.
Divine Retribution
From a Christian viewpoint, the calamities that befell the Jews are directly attributed to divine retribution and the fulfilment of prophecies.
##### Prophetic Fulfilment:
The dire misfortunes endured by the Jews, culminating in the destruction of Jerusalem, are explicitly stated to be the greatest calamities since the beginning of the world, exactly as predicted by our Saviour. Josephus is regarded as a most authentic witness to the fulfilment of these predictions.
##### Divine Providence and Escape of Christians:
The seemingly unpolitic retreat of Cestius Gallus during the siege of Jerusalem is presented as a providential act, offering the Jewish Christians within the city an opportunity to heed Christ's warning to "flee to the mountains" when Jerusalem was "compassed with armies". This allowed them to escape the subsequent unparalleled destruction.
##### Judgment for the Crucifixion of the Messiah:
The mass crucifixions of Jews by the Romans, so numerous that there was a shortage of both crosses and space for bodies, are interpreted as a just punishment upon the Jewish nation, who brought this judgment upon themselves by the crucifixion of their Messiah.
##### God's Role in the War:
It is affirmed that God was on the Roman side, using them as instruments for the destruction of the wicked Jewish nation, a fact foretold by the prophet Daniel and by our Saviour himself.
The Siloam fountain dried up for the Jews, but flowed abundantly for the Romans, a remarkable instance of divine providence for punishing the Jewish nation for their wickedness. Vespasian’s strategy to allow the Jewish factions to consume each other in sedition is seen as God acting as the Roman general, granting victory without their own effort.
Titus himself acknowledges divine assistance, stating that the Jewish sufferings were a result of God's anger against them and His aid to the Romans. The Roman soldiers, despite being enemies, are depicted as looking upon the Temple with a sacred horror, acknowledging its sanctity, and wishing the Jewish rebels would repent before their miseries became incurable.
##### Jewish Self-Destruction:
The Jewish seditious factions are deemed the direct cause of their own destruction and the conflagration of their city and temple, despite Titus's earnest and consistent efforts to save both. God himself brought on the fire to purge the city and temple, which were full of Jewish pollutions. The demolition of the Antonia Tower, making the Temple four-square, is connected to a sacred oracle predicting the city's fall when the Temple became four-square.
##### Prophecies of Josephus:
Josephus's own predictions, such as foretelling Vespasian's and Titus's ascent to the Roman Empire, led to his liberation and honourable treatment, which is presented as an eminent instance of divine providence and the certainty of divine predictions in the great revolutions of the four monarchies. He himself mentioned Christ, designating him as God the Word and the Judge of the world, appointed by the Father.
The immense number of Jews sold into slavery is seen as a fulfillment of God's ancient threat by Moses regarding apostasy (Deuteronomy#28:68), with the additional note that so many were sold that purchasers were scarce, leading to their sale for little or nothing.
Aftermath and Legacy
The siege of Jerusalem concluded with the city's capture in the second year of Vespasian's reign, on the eighth day of the month Gorpeius.
The city was entirely demolished, except for three towers preserved as a testament to its former strength and the Roman valour.
The total number of those who perished during the siege was eleven hundred thousand, with ninety-seven thousand carried captive. The work thus serves not only as a historical record of a monumental conflict but also as a profound commentary on divine judgment and the unfolding of prophecy.