The Art of War represents a significant distillation of military wisdom developed by the general and strategist Sun Tzu, during a time of political fragmentation and incessant inter-state violence, in about the 5th century BC
In ancient China, seven major states were competig for territorial dominance during the Warring States period, a time of chaos that saw a paradigm shift from ritualised aristocratic warfare, to a sophisticated, state-centric science of strategic management.
The text is deeply rooted in Taoist philosophy, specifically the concept of the Tao, or the Way. Sun Tzu identifies the Tao as the first of five constant factors governing warfare:
- Moral Law
- Heaven
- Earth
- the Commander
- Method & Discipline
Moral Law represents an existential harmony between a ruler and his populace, a harmony that ensures the people will follow their leader even into certain death, without fear of danger. This is grounded in the Taoist yin and yang, where opposites such as action and inaction or light and dark as complementary and mutually reinforcing.
Heaven in Taoism refers to external temporal conditions including seasons, weather, and timing, while Earth encompasses spatial and geographic factors such as distance, safety, open ground, and narrow passes.
The Commander must embody five virtues:
- Wisdom
- Sincerity
- Benevolence
- Courage
- Strictness.
Method and Discipline involve organisational structure, the hierarchy of command, and the management of supply lines.
Victory can be predicted by assessing which leader possesses a superior understanding and application of these five factors.
Before the First Arrow: The Calculus of War
A fundamental principle to understand is that all warfare is based on deception. Commanders must cultivate the ability to appear weak when strong, distant when near, and to feign disorder to bait and then crush the enemy.
If the enemy is superior in strength, evasion is advised. If the opponent is prone to anger, irritation should be employed, and if at ease, exhaustion tactics.
Attacks should target areas where the enemy is unprepared, and appearances should be made where least expected. Extensive calculations before battle are crucial, as many calculations lead to victory and few to defeat.
To know oneself and one's enemy guarantees victory in a hundred battles; knowing oneself but not the enemy results in an equal number of victories and defeats; and knowing neither leads to succumbing in every battle.
Why Every Day in the Field Bleeds the State Dry
The second chapter focuses on the economic and logistical aspects of military campaigns, emphasising the minimisation of costs through efficient and decisive engagements.
Success in war demands winning decisive engagements swiftly. Prolonged warfare erodes the state faster than any enemy could, so successful military campaigns necessitate limiting the financial cost of competition and conflict.
Resource management and the establishment of effective supply lines is key, and must be planned meticulously in advance.
Maintaining the army's equipment and provisioning is imperative for swift and decisive execution. Skilled generals do not require a second levy of conscripts or extensive additional provisioning, and the proper use of captured enemy resources can ensure victory.
The Supreme Art: Winning Without Drawing Blood
The third chapter explains the supreme art of war lies in subduing the enemy without direct fighting.
This principle advocates for resolving conflicts through negotiation, persuasion, and strategic manoeuvring, showcasing true mastery by achieving objectives without engaging in battle.
The highest form of generalship involves thwarting the enemy's plans, the next best is preventing the junction of their forces, followed by attacking the enemy's army in the field, and the worst policy is besieging walled cities.
Strategy flows naturally from a comprehensive understanding of one's own capabilities and those of the opponent. The source of strength is unity, not mere size, and five critical factors for success are highlighted in order of importance:
Attack, Strategy, Alliances, Army, and Cities.
The chapter also covers the strategic use of trickery and surprise. Leaders are advised to be unpredictable and to employ novel strategies to outwit adversaries.
Effective intelligence gathering is crucial, capable of revealing vital details about an enemy's strategy and weak points. Subduing the enemy's troops without fighting is considered supreme excellence, where triumph is complete without the loss of a single soldier.
Tactical advice includes surrounding an enemy force if one's army is ten times larger, attacking if five times larger, dividing forces if twice as large, and engaging in battle if forces are equal. If inferior, battle should be avoided; if outnumbered, flight is an option.
Secure Your Ground Before You Seek a Fight
The fourth chapter addresses the placement and utilisation of troops on the battlefield, advocating for securing an unassailable position before seeking battle.
The skilful fighter places themselves in a position where defeat is impossible, then waits for the opportune moment to defeat the enemy. This means that while one controls the ability to defend, the opportunity to defeat an enemy is provided by the enemy themselves.
Excellence in defence involves hiding one's strengths, while excellence in attack involves surprising the enemy. A truly great fighter wins with ease, making no mistakes, which ensures victory against an already defeated enemy. The victorious strategist seeks battle only after victory has been secured, in contrast to those destined for defeat who fight first and then seek victory.
Tactics are a logical outcome when strength is accumulated.
Leaders should deploy their forces in advantageous locations, such as high ground or fortified defensive positions, and seize the initiative to control the terms of the conflict rather than allowing the adversary to dictate them. Measurement of potential victory is linked to understanding the Earth, or terrain.
Coiled Force and the Moment of Release
The fifth chapter delves into the dynamics of force and momentum within an army. Creativity and timing are essential in building and unleashing an army's momentum.
The effective deployment of forces, akin to rolling logs and stones down a mountain, allows for the unleashing of destructive energy. The proper timing and coordination of troops create a surge of energy that can overwhelm the enemy.
Energy is like the bending of a crossbow and decision to the releasing of its trigger, highlighting the accumulated potential and its sudden, decisive discharge.
Strike Where They Are Not
The sixth chapter discusses the identification and exploitation of enemy vulnerabilities while safeguarding one's own strengths.
The way of war involves avoiding what is strong and striking at what is weak. It is crucial to recognise and leverage the enemy's weaknesses, concentrating attacks on their vulnerable points, such as supply lines or rear guards, to disrupt their operations and gain the upper hand.
Commanders must also avoid predictability and employ feints and diversions to deceive the adversary. Being excellent at defence means hiding, while being excellent at attacking means surprising the enemy.
The skilful general imposes their will on the enemy, preventing the enemy from imposing their will. This involves attacking where the enemy is unprepared and appearing where they are not expected.
Knowing oneself and knowing the enemy are foundational principles, allowing for the leveraging of one's strengths while exploiting the opponent's weaknesses.
The Peril of Getting There
The seventh chapter explores the challenges and complexities of moving an army, particularly in enemy territory, and the importance of disciplined coordination.
Direct conflict is dangerous, a winning General should know how to achieve victory when such confrontations are unavoidable. Do not force an army to march further than normal and understand the inherent difficulties of moving large quantities of troops and supplies.
The general, receiving orders from political authority, must harmonise all elements of the army. Manoeuvres must be executed with a disciplined army, not with undisciplined individuals, ensuring all soldiers march together.
To lead an army effectively, environmental knowledge is essential. The spirit of a soldier is highest in the morning and lowest in the evening, suggesting attacks should be timed for the enemy's lowest morale.
When encircling an enemy, a free passage should be left to avoid making them desperate.
When the Rulebook Must Be Abandoned
The eighth chapter highlights the need for flexibility and adaptability in an army's responses to changing circumstances.
The general who fails to understand tactical variations will be unable to apply their knowledge effectively and will consequently fail to make the best use of their forces.
Five dangerous faults that can affect a general are identified: recklessness leading to destruction, cowardice leading to capture, a hasty temper provoked by insults, a delicacy of honour making them sensitive to shame, and over-solicitude for their men, exposing them to worry and trouble.
In confined situations, stratagem is necessary; in desperate situations, fighting is unavoidable. The commander must rely not on the enemy's unlikelihood of attacking, but on their own readiness to receive them, and not on the chance of the enemy not coming, but on having made their own position unassailable.
Reading the Land, Reading the Enemy
The ninth chapter provides practical advice for managing troops and camp logistics during movement. It details how to understand the environment and assess the intentions of others while an army is traversing new enemy territories.
In mountainous warfare, the army should stay near valleys, occupy high, sunny ground, and avoid climbing heights to engage the enemy. River warfare, a general should move far from the bank after crossing and only attack an invading force when half of its troops have reached the bank.
Observe behavioural clues: humble words combined with increased preparation suggest an imminent attack, while peace proposals without a sworn covenant indicate a plot.
Physical signs of weakness include soldiers leaning on spears due to hunger or officers becoming angry because of weariness. Frequent rewards suggest the enemy is at the end of their resources, while excessive punishments betray a state of dire distress.
Ultimately, victory depends on consistent leadership and iron discipline; soldiers must be treated with humanity but kept under strict control.
Ground That Kills and Ground That Saves
The tenth chapter expands upon the influence of geographical features on military operations. It explores the three general areas of resistance - distance, dangers, and barriers.
There are six types of ground positions that arise from these areas of resistance: accessible ground, entangling ground, temporising ground, narrow passes, precipitous heights, and distant ground.
Understanding the terrain allows a commander to position their forces advantageously and make informed decisions. The concept of terrain encompasses various factors such as market conditions, competition, and resources, applicable beyond purely military contexts.
Nine Ways a Campaign Can Unravel
The eleventh chapter describes various strategic situations an army might face and the appropriate responses for each.
These nine situations:
- Dispersive Ground
Where soldiers are apt to scatter, the rule is not to fight.
- Facile Ground
Where forces are apt to linger, the rule is not to halt.
- Contentious Ground
Where possession offers a decided advantage, the rule is to rush in first.
- Open Ground
Where forces are relatively free to move, the rule is not to block the enemy's line of retreat.
- Ground of Intersecting Highways
Which offers easy communication, the rule is to form alliances.
- Serious Ground
Deep in enemy territory, the rule is to gather plunder to sustain the army.
- Difficult Ground
Requiring arduous passage, the rule is to keep moving.
- Hemmed-in Ground
With restricted entry and exit, the rule is to resort to stratagem.
- Desperate Ground
Where fighting is the only option, the rule is to fight.
Fire as Instrument, Not Spectacle
The twelfth chapter focuses on the innovative and creative use of fire as a weapon in warfare. It explains five ways to employ fire against an opposing army: by burning its camp, setting fire to its stores, burning its supply lines, igniting its arsenal, and by raining fire down upon it.
Timing and environmental conditions are crucial - wind, for effective fire attacks. The use of fire is presented as a means to harass and damage enemy forces, creating opportunities for attack or forcing retreat.
The Invisible Soldiers Who Decide the War
The final chapter asserts the critical importance of intelligence and espionage in securing victory. Knowing the enemy's plans is vital for success in war.
Sun Tzu heavily endorses the use of spies and explains how to acquire knowledge through them.
Five types of spies are identified:
- Local spies: Inhabitants of the enemy district paid for information.
- Inward spies: Officials from the enemy's army or government turned to the invader's use.
- Converted spies: Captured enemy spies who are treated well, turned, and used as counterspies. They are especially crucial as they can reveal others within the enemy force who might be recruited.
- Doomed spies: Sacrificed spies who are fed false information which is then allowed to fall into enemy hands, thereby deceiving the adversary.
- Surviving spies: Go undercover, risk exposure, and return with vital intelligence.
Both rulers and generals should employ spies, as accurate knowledge of the enemy and terrain is the most important asset in warfare. Spies should be well-treated and well-paid, as the cost of espionage is minimal compared to the immense cost of waging large-scale war.
A wise leader must possess intuitive sagacity and subtle ingenuity to discern good information from bad. The army's every move depends on the information provided by spies, underscoring their indispensability for sound planning.