Military Orders in the Middle Ages

A chapter in Military and Religious Life in the Middle Ages and at the Period of the Renaissance|

The association of the Church and Chivalry, of war and religion, culminated in the foundation of an institution hitherto entirely unknown: the religious military orders.

This institution owed its origin principally to the Crusades, wherein chivalry demonstrated its most admirable religious military aspect.

Votaries sacrificed all affections, abandoned the renown of the soldier and the repose of the cloister, exposing themselves to hardships. Religion chastened the failings of valour, compelling it to forget the pride that frequently accompanies it.

The Hospitallers (Order of Saint John of Jerusalem)

The Order of Saint John of Jerusalem

Also known as the Hospitallers, originated in the mid-eleventh century when merchants from Amalfi built a hospital at Jerusalem dedicated to Saint John, providing shelter for poor pilgrims visiting the Holy Land.

This charitable institution received encouragement and large donations from Godefroy de Bouillon and his successors. Pierre Gérard, a native of Martigues in Provence, proposed that the hospital's brothers renounce the world, adopt a regular dress, and form an uncloistered monastic order known as the Hospitallers. Pope Pascal II formally authorised the institution, appointed Gérard as its director, and granted the Hospitallers numerous privileges, taking them under his protection.

The order's regulations imposed a triple vow of chastity, poverty, and obedience. Beyond their duties of hospitality, they were enjoined to exercise arms, particularly for the defence of the kingdom of Jerusalem.

Following the fall of Acre, the Hospitallers settled in Limisso. Jean de Villiers, the grand master of the Knights of Saint John of Acre, convened a general chapter in Cyprus to address the order's future after the disasters of the crusade, aiming to prevent its complete extinction. The knights present swore to shed their last blood to recover possession of the Holy Sepulchre.

The Hospitallers subsequently decided to retire to the island of Rhodes, entrenching themselves there. After a four-year investment, the capital was taken by assault, and the entire island came under the Hospitallers' sway in 1310. For over two centuries, they had to defend Rhodes against constant attacks from infidels. Joubert or Jacques de Milly, the grand prior of Auvergne, led the Knights of Rhodes in inflicting a significant repulse upon the Ottomans in 1455. Raymond Zacosta, a later grand master, constructed the impregnable Fort Saint Nicholas upon a rocky promontory to defend the town and port. The knights, led by their grand master Pierre d’Aubusson, who was wounded five times, displayed energetic resistance against the vizier's assaults, even refusing dishonourable terms of capitulation.

In 1530, under the guidance of grand master Villiers de l’Ile-Adam, the four thousand knights abandoned Rhodes and eventually settled at Malta, which was ceded to them by Charles V, becoming the order's definitive residence. Thirty-five years later, the order faced another major Turkish attack under Mustapha, Pasha of Buda. The invincible courage of grand master Jean de la Valette and a small number of his knights enabled Malta to hold out, despite over two thousand casualties. Don Garcias de Toledo, the viceroy of Sicily, eventually arrived with sixty galleys as reinforcement. Following these events, Jean de la Valette built a new city in Malta, named Valetta after him.

The Order of Malta

, which entirely replaced that of Saint John, was divided into three main classes:

• Knights: These individuals, marked by their noble birth and previous military rank, were designated for military service.
• Chaplains: Composed of priests and ecclesiastics, they performed ordinary religious duties and served as almoners during wartime.
• Serving Brothers: These members were not nobles or ecclesiastics; admission required proof of being born of respectable parents who had never engaged in any handicraft. Aspirants were often termed douats or demi-croix.

Although retaining the nominal existence of the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem in their statutes, the knights were still called servants of the sick and needy upon reception. The order was further organised into eight different tongues or nations: Provence, Auvergne, France, Italy, Aragon, Germany, Castile, and England, each under the direction of a grand prior, also known as a pilier or monastic bailiff. Lady Hospitallers also existed in Spain, dedicated to hospital work and charity.

The regular dress of the order consisted of a black robe with a pointed cape of the same colour. On the left sleeve, a white linen cross with eight points was sewn, symbolising the eight beatitudes: spiritual contentment, a life free from malice, repentance for sins, meekness under suffering, a love of justice, a merciful disposition, sincerity and frankness of heart, and a capability of enduring persecution. Later, knights were permitted to wear an octagonal golden cross inlaid with white enamel, suspended from the breast with a black ribbon. Candidates for the robe presented themselves at the altar in a long gown without a girdle, holding a taper. They received a gilt sword, a girdle, and performed a ceremonial brandishing and wiping of the sword, symbolising defiance of unbelievers and preservation from stain. The black mantle was typical of Saint John the Baptist’s camel hair, and the cords fastening it around the neck signified Christ’s passion. In battle, members wore a red doublet embroidered with the eight-pointed cross.

The Knights Templars (Order of the Temple)

The Knights Templars, or Knights of the Temple, were founded by Hugues de Payens and Geoffrey de Saint-Aldemar, along with nine other French nobles. They obtained permission from Patriarch Guarimond and Baldwin II, King of Jerusalem, to form an association to cooperate with the Hospitallers, protect pilgrims, and defend Solomon’s Temple. Their dwelling within the Temple walls led to their distinctive name. Initially, they lived a simple and regular life, using the humble title of poor soldiers of Jesus Christ, and their charity and devotion earned them sympathy and frequent donations from kings of Jerusalem and Eastern Christians.

For the first nine years of their existence (1118 to 1127), the Templars admitted no strangers to their ranks. As their numbers grew, they requested ratification from the Holy See. At the Council of Troyes in 1228, Hugues de Payens presented their foundation certificate, and Cardinal Matthew, Bishop of Alba, confirmed their order, with Saint Bernard guiding the creation of their special code.

The Templars were required to attend mass three times a week and communicate thrice a year. They wore a white robe, symbolising purity, to which Pope Eugenius III added a red cross to remind them of their oath to be ever ready to shed their blood in defence of the Christian religion. Their rules were of great austerity, prescribing perpetual exile and warfare for the holy places until death. Knights were to accept every combat, regardless of being outnumbered, and were forbidden from asking for or giving quarter or ransom. They were not permitted to join less austere orders to escape these rigorous regulations.

Unbelievers held the Templars in great dread, describing them as possessing the gentleness of the lamb and the patience of the hermit, united with the courage of the hero and the strength of the lion. Their standard, named Beaucéant, was half black and half white, inscribed with the motto: Non nobis, Domine, non nobis, sed nomini tuo da gloriam (Not to us, O Lord, not to us, but to thy name ascribe the glory).

The Order of the Temple was composed of three main groups:

• Milites: Knight commanders.
• Armigeri: Serving brothers bearing arms.
• Clientes: Clients responsible for domestic matters. Their oaths were similar to those of Saint John of Jerusalem, pledging to live in chastity, poverty, and obedience. Some members were granted the right to retain an individual income, and they were permitted to wear an under doublet of white wool.

Within fifty years of its establishment, the Templars held their first general chapter in Jerusalem, attended by three hundred gentlemen and many serving brothers, mostly French. They elected Gérard de Rederfort as grand master, thereby freeing themselves from the jurisdiction of the patriarch of Jerusalem, and transferred the order's seat to St. Jean d’Acre. The Templars were magnificent soldiers, and their exploits fill the annals of the Crusades, frequently defeating infidel forces despite being outnumbered. Their wealth and influence expanded significantly, holding seventeen strongholds in the kingdom of Valencia. The English crown's treasures were deposited in their London quarters, and King Philip Augustus entrusted them with his jewels and archives before his departure for the Holy Land.

However, the Templars' power and wealth led to an audacity that nothing could restrain, and their pride became proverbial. Their beliefs and morals deviated significantly from orthodox practice. In 1273, Pope Gregory X considered merging their order with the Hospitallers. In the early fourteenth century, Philippe le Bel, King of France, received grave accusations against them, including denying Christ, spitting on the cross, engaging in immoral customs, and idolatry. One hundred and forty knights were examined in Paris, with almost all confessing to these charges. Despite protests from some, including the German protestant clergyman De Wilcke, who argued that the Templars were under the sole control of the Holy See and thus beyond the king's authority, examinations continued across Europe.

Pope Clement V, after gathering all necessary information, convened the Council of Vienne in 1312. The council's decision ultimately absolved the order but placed their persons and property at the disposal of the Church. In Spain and Portugal, their property was used for the defence of Christians against Saracens and Moors. The greater portion of the Templars' possessions, particularly in France, was transferred to the Hospitallers of Saint John of Jerusalem, who continued their charitable works and efforts for the holy places. Most Templars were subsequently released, with many joining the Order of Saint John. The grand master, Jacques de Molai, remained reserved for the Pope's personal judgment.

Other Notable Military Orders

Beyond the prominent Hospitallers and Templars, numerous other knighthood orders, varying in religious and military character, emerged throughout the Middle Ages and Renaissance.

• Knights of Calatrava (Spain): Founded by Don Raymond, Abbot of Citeaux, this order followed the rules of his monastery. They distinguished themselves against the Moors of Spain and Africa in wars deemed 'holy', gaining large possessions and privileges. Like the Templars, they took a triple vow of poverty, obedience, and chastity, and wore a red cross on a white mantle. Spanish sovereigns later assumed the grand mastership. The Order of Alcantara shared a similar origin and trajectory of decline.
• Ladies of the Sash (Spain): Uniquely, a military order for ladies was established in Spain by John I of Castile in 1390, after the women of Placentia heroically defended their city against the English. This order was later united with the Order of the Belt, founded in the fourteenth century to combat the Moors.
• Teutonic Knights (Germany): Founded in Jerusalem in 1128 by German Crusaders, they adhered to the rules of Saint Augustin and held similar statutes and privileges to the Knights of Saint John and the Temple. Their first grand master, Henri Walpot, resided near St. Jean d’Acre. The order comprised knights, chaplains, and serving brethren, distinguished by a white mantle with a broad black cross picked out with silver on the left sleeve. Candidates, over fifteen and robust, vowed chastity and avoided intercourse with women, even refraining from filial kisses to their mothers. They possessed no individual property, kept cell doors open, and for a long period lived humbly. Hermann de Salza, a celebrated grand master, secured large possessions and honours from Pope Honorius III and Emperor Frederick II. The Teutonic Knights conquered Prussia, Livonia, and Courland, controlling the territory between the Vistula and the Niemen by 1283. Their headquarters moved to Marienburg in 1309, marking the peak of their prosperity and beneficial influence in Germany. However, luxury and internal struggles led to their decline, including significant losses in the wars against Casimir IV of Poland. Ultimately, their last grand master, Albert of Brandenburg, joined the Lutheran Church, divided the order's possessions with the King of Poland, and became the hereditary Duke of Prussia, leading to the order's extinction and the origin of the Prussian royal family.
• Order of the Golden Fleece (Low Countries, Spain, Austria): Instituted in 1449 by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy and Count of Flanders, its initial aim was to encourage nobles to wage war against the Turks and to strengthen loyalty to the state. Though the crusade never materialised, the order survived as a heraldic distinction. Placed under the protection of Saint Andrew, it originally consisted of twenty-four high-ranking knights, later expanded to thirty-one by the Duke of Burgundy and fifty-one by Charles V. Elections were by majority vote. The distinguishing insignia was a gold necklet enamelled with the duke's device of interlaced steels and flints, bearing the motto Ante ferit quam micat (It strikes before it lights). A golden sheep or fleece, inscribed Pretium non vile laborum (Labour's just reward), was suspended from the collar. Since the marriage of Philippe le Beau in 1496, the King of Spain and the Emperor of Austria have been the sovereign chiefs of the order in their respective countries.
• Orders of Saint Maurice and Saint Lazarus (Savoy): Savoy possessed a long-surviving military knighthood order. Amadeus VIII, who elevated Savoy to a duchy, founded a secular knighthood order, residing at Ripailles near Lake Geneva under the protection of Saint Maurice. The initial six knights wore a white taffeta cross. After a period of neglect, Duke Emanuel Philibert reconstituted the order in 1572 with papal approval, and shortly after, united it with the Knights of Saint Lazarus. Knights took a triple vow similar to the Templars, pledging fidelity to the Dukes of Savoy and undertaking war against heretics from Geneva. The order held considerable property, with headquarters in Nice and Turin. Its insignia featured a white cross with flowered points, overlaid by a green-bordered cross, bearing images of the two patron saints.
• Order of Saint Stephen (Tuscany): Founded in 1562 by Cosmo de Medicis, Grand Duke of Tuscany, this order actively participated in Mediterranean naval battles, pursuing Ottoman galleys and conducting landings on Barbary states' coasts. By the mid-seventeenth century, they claimed to have liberated over five thousand six hundred Christian captives and fifteen thousand slaves. Their customs and ceremonies closely resembled those of the Order of Malta, also being divided into military and ecclesiastical knights.
• French Honorary Orders: Several military knighthood orders were created by French sovereigns, though primarily honorary, serving as rewards rather than solemn military commitments.
  • Order of the Star: Its real origin dates from King John, though it was attempted to be traced back to King Robert in 1022.
  • Order of the Cosse de Geneste: Instituted by Louis IX in 1254 to encourage his nobles to join the Crusades. It was later bestowed upon the king's sergeants, a bodyguard responsible for protecting the sovereign from assassins.
  • Order of the Ship: Instituted in 1269, it became extinct shortly after Saint Louis's second crusade.
  • Order of Saint Michael: Created in 1469 by Louis XI, inspired by Saint Michael's victory over the dragon. Comprising thirty-six knights and the sovereign as its head, its collar featured golden shells inlaid with Saint Michael overthrowing Satan. On ceremonial occasions, knights wore a white mantle with a crimson velvet hood.
  • Order of the Holy Ghost: This was the last military order directly conferred by French sovereigns, founded by Henry III in 1579 in honour of God and the Holy Ghost. Though initially conceived for three hundred knights for crusades in Palestine, it evolved to gather one hundred eminent personages from the court, Church, and nobility around the king as its supreme head. Its insignia included a collar of golden fleurs-de-lis surmounted by enamelled flames forming the initials of the king and his wife, and a cross bearing a silver dove, emblem of the Holy Ghost. Knights wore costly round-caped blue velvet mantles spangled with gold fleurs-de-lis during meetings. Despite statutes enjoining military service for the sovereign's defence, these were not scrupulously obeyed. The order maintained its military and religious character ceremonially but primarily served for display and heraldic pretension. Sovereigns remained extremely jealous of the privilege of appointing its knights, who served as the actual guard of honour for the royal house of France for over three centuries.