Paul Lacroix | 1870

This encyclopaedic work, authored by Paul Lacroix, also known as Bibliophile Jacob, offers a comprehensive exploration of the dual forces that shaped European society during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

A new society emerged from the chaotic mix of barbarous nations and the corrupt remnants of the heathen world. Religious life, supported by military power, was instrumental in creating a higher and better state of affairs, ultimately evoking modern Europe with its diverse strengths, glories, influence, and global authority.

Christianity's Transformative Role 

Christianity is the paramount benefactor of the Middle Ages, profoundly shaping the period through the actions of the Church and religion.

By fostering unity of faith, it established political cohesion among peoples previously fragmented into hostile races, a feat historically achieved only through annihilation or the dominion of the sword.

This new principle of life steadily and deeply remoulded and directed the world by assimilating individuals, persisting despite centuries of barbaric excesses. The dogma of common origin and destiny for all humanity was a continuous argument for people's emancipation, bringing together individuals from all social strata and paving the way for modern civilisation.

Bishops, under Christ's influence and morality, guided national legislation and governmental direction within great councils, often preserving national unity.

Popes, for their part, incessantly strove to unify all Christian peoples into one vast republic, largely achieving this sublime objective, which naturally stemmed from the unity of doctrines professed by all. Early enunciations of this vision, such as Tertullian's Apologetica in the twelfth century, declared, "The republic of the human race is what we demand".

The military power generally served the Church, enabling Christianity to complete its work. Historical figures such as Clovis, whose baptism at Rheims brought France into the Church's fold, and Joan of Arc, whose sword saved France, exemplify this combined action. Charlemagne, Godefroi de Bouillon, and St. Louis further illustrate the intricate relationship between military and religious life throughout the Middle Ages, including the era of chivalry and the Crusades.

Challenges and Developments 

Despite these civilising forces, the ordinary condition of things was fraught with evils.

Military life among the Germanic peoples led to feudalism and severe anarchy, where royalty held little power and authority was fragmented. Private or civil warfare became legally permissible for centuries, resulting in pervasive disorder, violence, oppression, and tyranny. Military life often counteracted Christianity's beneficent influence, serving as a bastion of barbarism.

However, the Church managed to moderate feudal excesses through the creation of Chivalry, a noble military institution that represented the Christian ideal of armed profession. The primary duty of a knight was "to defend in this world the weakness of all, but especially the weakness of the Church, of justice, and of right".

Chivalry acted as an armed force in service of defenceless truth and justice.

Under the powerful impulse of the popes, the Crusades channelled this warlike spirit, diverting internal conflicts and preventing the dominion of the Quran in Europe.

These expeditions facilitated the enfranchisement of Communes, reduced feudal power, and strengthened royal influence, though the latter waned during the Hundred Years' War before being reinstated by Joan of Arc. The feudal army was eventually replaced by mercenary troops, leading to the concentration of military power in the sovereign's hands and the emergence of monarchy from feudalism.

A deeper shift also occurred in the moral and religious landscape. Following the capture of Constantinople, Greek scholars in Italian courts inspired a fervent appreciation for ancient literature, concurrently diminishing the appreciation for Christian-era works. This

The invention of printing accelerated was a mental revolution, and led to a decline in the Church's influence and an inclination towards individual reason, culminating in Luther's proclamation of free examination, which divided one half of Europe.

Key Aspects of Military and Religious Life 

Feudalism 

War and Armies in the Middle Ages

Naval Matters in the Middle Ages

The Crusades

Chivalry

Military Orders in the Middle Ages

Liturgy and Ceremonies 

Christian Church practice, from its inception, encompassed sacred ceremonies and the administration of sacraments. While Orthodox retained these, Saint Gregory the Great (590–604) significantly shaped Roman Catholic ceremonial, revising service books and reforming sacred music, leading to the establishment of Gregorian chant. Church bells and organs, emerging in the eighth century. The Council of Trent (1545–1563) later undertook comprehensive reforms in dogma and discipline by Pope Pius V.

The Popes 

Popes aimed to convert Europe, associate political and religious truth, and restore human dignity. The Church as an unified pan-national body acted, often preventing the power of the sword from heretics.

The Secular Clergy 

The secular clergy, distinct from monastic orders, constituted the hierarchical framework of the Christian Church from its inception, comprising roles from doorkeeper to bishop. Early bishops frequently ministered independently within their episcopal cities before delegating sacramental and other functions to local clergy. Tithes, initially voluntary, evolved into compulsory payments, supporting the clergy, church structures, and the poor.

Bishops wielded considerable political and social influence, acting as organisers of the French monarchy from the sixth century and serving as magistrates. They provided inviolable sanctuary within churches and were empowered to judge kings for moral transgressions. The Church established public education through episcopal schools, offering a broad curriculum. Bishops also significantly aided the establishment of communes. The Bishop of Rome, exclusively termed 'pope' from the fifth century, asserted supremacy, reinforced by episcopal oaths of allegiance.

Periods of relaxed discipline, moral decay, and usurpation of Church property by lay lords posed considerable challenges. The Crusades led to financial strain and further decline, while heresies and internal schisms, such as the Great Western Schism, caused widespread division. Significant reform efforts culminated in the Council of Trent (1545–1563), which addressed abuses, clarified dogma, and notably enhanced clerical dignity. This council also mandated the establishment of seminaries for the structured training of future priests.

The Religious Orders in the Middle Ages

Charitable Institutions in the Middle Ages

Pilgrimages in the Middle Ages

The Inquisition 

Burials and Funeral Ceremonies in the Middle Ages

This encyclopaedia aims to provide a vivid and detailed portrayal of the intertwining military and religious dimensions that defined the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, offering a rich resource for understanding the foundations of modern European society.

The full works can be seen and downloaded here