The philosophy of Niccolò Machiavelli.
Machiavellianism refers to political cunning, intrigue, and ruthlessness, embodying astuteness, a controlling nature, sinister actions, underhandedness, deviousness, scheming, subtle manipulation, nefariousness, and a degree of cruelty.
The term is derived from the Italian diplomat and political thinker Niccolò Machiavelli, whose 16th-century work, _The Prince_, is a manual on acquiring and retaining power. The concept is often used as an adjective to describe individuals perceived as politically savvy and often morally ambiguous.
Core Tenets
Central to Machiavellian thought is a starkly pragmatic view of human nature and politics, diverging significantly from Christian morality.
##### Human Nature:
It is asserted that men are fundamentally ungrateful, fickle, liars, and deceivers. They shun danger and are greedy for profit. Given this, a ruler cannot trust others to keep their word and must, therefore, be prepared not to keep his own when it is to his disadvantage.
##### Fear Over Love:
While it would be ideal for a leader to be both loved and feared, it is far safer and more effective to be feared.
Love is a bond easily broken when it benefits individuals, but fear is maintained by the dread of punishment, which is consistently reliable. Fear provides a stable emotional foundation for building and maintaining power. Margaret Thatcher, for example, was feared and respected rather than liked.
##### The Fox and the Lion:
A ruler must possess both the cunning of a fox to spot snares and the strength of a lion to overwhelm wolves. Merely relying on strength demonstrates a lack of understanding. The fox-like qualities, such as guile and the ability to dissemble, should be meticulously concealed, as deceivers will always find those willing to be deceived.
##### Pragmatic Morality:
Traditional virtues and vices are viewed as tools or "artefacts" to be employed for survival and to achieve the greater good of the community, even if individual actions appear morally questionable.
A leader must be willing to learn how to be able not to be good if it is necessary to maintain their position. Personal morality must be set aside when assuming leadership. Machiavelli’s work notably omits considerations of divine judgment, operating on the assumption that sins will not inevitably be discovered.
##### Virtù:
This concept, distinct from conventional virtue, encompasses a leader's mastery of fortune, embodying qualities such as courage, prudence, wisdom, strategy, strength, and ruthlessness.
The controversial notion of "criminal virtue" describes a leader's necessary capacity for cruelty in the state's name while still acting as an effective leader. Any violence perpetrated must be strictly necessary for state security, executed swiftly, and not repeated excessively to avoid a reputation for mindless brutality.
##### Fortune (Fortuna):
While fortune, the capricious turn of events, is acknowledged as more powerful than reason, a leader's _virtù_ allows them to seize opportunities and dominate luck.
##### Management of Appearances:
It is crucial for a ruler to appear merciful, loyal, humane, of integrity, and scrupulous, as the common populace is swayed by appearances and results.
Public perception is vital; overt ambition for power can be counterproductive, as the public prefers leaders motivated by higher aspirations.
##### Delegation of Unpopular Tasks:
To avoid public hatred, princes should delegate difficult or unpopular decisions to others, retaining popular actions for themselves. This strategy allows leaders to distance themselves from perceived cruelty, as exemplified by Cesare Borgia's dismemberment of Ramiro d'Orco after he had pacified a region through brutal means.
##### Crushing Enemies:
Machiavellian thought posits that men should either be entirely appeased or utterly crushed, as slight injuries invite revenge, while severe ones preclude it. This timeless "law of power" applies to both warfare and business, dictating that rivals must be neutralised to eliminate future threats.
Influence and Modern Applications
Machiavellian principles have influenced modern politics and beyond, making _The Prince_ one of the most influential books ever written.
##### Political Leadership:
The book has been a "how-to guide" for leaders, providing a realistic working view of power dynamics. Historical figures such as Napoleon, Stalin, Mussolini, Henry Kissinger, and Richard Nixon reportedly studied _The Prince_, and modern leaders like Bill Clinton, Tony Blair, Margaret Thatcher and Angela Merkel are often described as having an innate "Machiavellian DNA".
##### Geopolitics (Realpolitik):
Machiavellian thought is foundational to Realpolitik, a foreign policy approach that prioritises practical and strategic considerations over ideological or moral concerns. Nations, like individuals, are viewed as self-interested agents, and international relations are seen as a constant struggle for power and influence, where morality is often irrelevant.
In the Cold War, where superpowers supported dictators or intervened in conflicts (like the US involvement in Chile, the Iran-Iraq War) based purely on strategic interests rather than ethical alignment.
##### Business and Everyday Life:
The timeless "laws of power" extend beyond politics to business and personal interactions. The "crush your enemy" dynamic is observed in corporate competition, such as Microsoft's actions against Netscape or Google's acquisition of potential competitors. The importance of managing appearances is equally vital in business, as seen in Hollywood, where confidence in pitching an idea outweighs its inherent brilliance.
##### Psychological Measurement:
In the 1960s, psychologists developed the "Machiavelli test," a 20-question assessment to quantify "Machiavellian instincts" in individuals. Studies using this test consistently show that men tend to score higher than women, and Machiavellianism typically peaks in adolescence. Political orientation (right-wing vs. left-wing) shows no correlation with Machiavellian tendencies.
Critiques and Enduring Relevance
While often associated with the phrase "the end justifies the means"—though Machiavelli wrote "the action is accused and the outcome excuses it" if undertaken for the good of the state— The dispassionate, consequence-driven morality, where evil acts are justified if they ensure state security eschews heavenly virtues for earthly gains.
Yer _The Prince_ is a realistic guide, exposing the true nature of power rather than advocating for wickedness. It serves as a template for navigating a world where traditional virtues may not be rewarded.
The book's capacity to expose the tricks of power, allowing anyone to read and understand them, imbues it with an inherent irony. Machiavelli himself, despite his teachings, reportedly did not appear Machiavellian in his personal conduct.
Political Cycles and Factions
Machiavelli contributed to the theory of political cycles, echoing Plato and Aristotle, by describing how governments naturally devolve through predictable stages:
##### - from monarchy to tyranny,
##### - aristocracy to oligarchy,
##### - and popular government to anarchy,
##### - often returning to a new form of monarchy.
This cyclical pattern, influenced by the self-interested nature of rulers and the populace alike, can lead to inevitable conflict and the destruction of liberty if unchecked.
The optimal solution, according to Machiavelli, is a mixed form of government, or a republic, which integrates elements of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, creating a more stable and enduring political structure.
Beyond governmental forms, Machiavelli's analysis, extended by later thinkers such as David Hume and James Madison, addressed the persistent problem of factions.
Factions are groups united by common interests or passions that are adverse to the broader community's welfare.
These inevitably arise from human nature, particularly from the unequal distribution of property, leading to competing interests within society.
While Madison proposed that a large republic could mitigate the influence of factions by filtering out "bad actors" and diversifying interests to prevent any single faction from dominating, modern developments like political parties and mass media have complicated this.
In practice, well-organised minority special interest groups can often exert undue influence over a disorganised majority, leading politicians to prioritise these groups over the common good, driven by the incentive to win elections.