J R R Tolkien
J.R.R. Tolkien (1892–1973) stands as a monumental figure in 20th-century literature, particularly for his seminal contributions to the fantasy genre and his unparalleled influence on its subsequent development. His literary endeavour, often termed a "great project," was fundamentally aimed at creating a cohesive body of stories for the English people, a narrative space capable of accommodating perspectives such as his own. This ambitious undertaking, referred to by scholars as his legendarium, serves as a practical demonstration of how modern individuals can utilise themes derived from Universal History to craft narratives that reclaim a mythical, cosmic vision of Christian storytelling. While occasionally labelled a "mythology for England," a more apt description of Tolkien's work, capturing its expansive scope and narrative types, is that of a "universal history for England". This perspective highlights Tolkien's method of employing Universal History to recover a Christian Mythic storytelling tradition, demonstrating a pathway for modern people to re-engage with grand narratives that connect their individual stories to a larger cosmic vision.
The Legendarium: Scope and Purpose
Tolkien’s original conception for his legendarium, as articulated in his 1951 letter to Milton Waldman (Letter 131), aimed to forge "a body of more or less connected Legend ranging from the large and cosmogonic to the level of romantic fairy story". This grand narrative was envisioned with "the larger founded on the Lesser in contact with the Earth," with "the Lesser drawing Splendor from the vast back cloths". This principle suggests a hierarchical narrative structure where grand, cosmic narratives are rooted in and informed by more grounded, earthly tales, with the latter gaining significance and richness from the vast background of the former. His intention was to dedicate this entire project simply to England, his country, as he felt his homeland lacked its own distinct mythology comparable to those of other European nations. Within this scheme, some great tales were to be rendered in fullness, while many others would merely be placed and sketched, creating linked cycles that formed a majestic whole, yet left scope for other minds and hands to contribute through various artistic mediums such as paint, music, and drama. This approach contrasted with typical imitators, who often began by attempting to recreate large-scale creation stories, such as Tolkien's Ainulindalë; Tolkien's method posited that the grand, cosmic narratives were founded on the smaller, earthly ones, a concept to be deeply explored in studies of his work.
A central, startling aspect of Tolkien's creative vision is that his entire story, including The Lord of the Rings, is unequivocally set within our world, specifically as a pre-Christian history of Northern Europe. This foundational concept was never abandoned by Tolkien, with veiled references to even the Incarnation present within The Lord of the Rings, underscoring its deep Catholic foundations. He intended for his narrative to exist as a true pre-history, not a detached fantasy realm.
Influence and Enduring Quality
Tolkien achieved something unique in his lifetime's storytelling endeavours, an accomplishment largely unmatched by subsequent authors. The enduring quality of The Lord of the Rings is remarkable, confidently predicted to be read for a hundred, and likely two hundred, years after its publication. Its longevity contrasts with other fantasy works, such as C.S. Lewis's Narnia books or commercially successful series like Harry Potter and The Wheel of Time. While these later works may achieve commercial success, evident in their vast sales and wealth for authors, the true measure of a book's endurance is its continued readership over generations. The Lord of the Rings consistently meets this standard.
A common pitfall for Tolkien’s imitators lies in their perception of his success as stemming from a replicable formula involving specific races like elves, dwarves, and halflings, or predictable plot structures. This superficial approach often leads to narratives that "fall apart," a critique extended even to some overtly Christian fantasy authors who, despite their intentions, struggle to replicate the depth and enduring quality of Tolkien's creations. The key to understanding Tolkien's success, beyond his deep Catholicism, lies in the intrinsic connection between his legendarium and the principles of Universal History. Since The Hobbit’s commercial success in its time marked a beginning for commercially viable fantasy literature, authors have largely struggled to emulate Tolkien's enduring quality. Tolkien's meticulous world-building, with its intricate details and depth, established a gold standard for fantasy that began with him and has rarely been matched.
Catholicism and its Context
Tolkien's deep Catholicism is central to understanding his Middle-earth, forming a missing key in comprehending his literary project. His personal experiences as a Roman Catholic in early 20th-century England were marked by latent prejudice and discrimination. Catholics at Oxford, for instance, were subjected to social segregation, being relegated to the 'far table' in dining halls alongside Jews, indicating the significant societal difficulties faced by Roman Catholics in England at the time. His mother, a convert to Roman Catholicism, was abandoned by her family for her faith and subsequently died, leading Tolkien to consider her a martyr; this early experience left an indelible mark on his perspective and fostered a distance from certain aspects of English cultural heritage.
These deeply personal experiences informed his literary project, which sought to create a body of stories for the English that could accommodate someone of his background. Tolkien was critical of the Arthurian Legends, widely known as the "Matter of Britain," precisely because they had become inextricably linked with the Church of England. Specifically, the late addition of the legend of Joseph of Arimathea bringing the infant Christ to Britain, and later the Holy Grail, was historically exploited by Elizabeth I's court theologians to assert the independence and apostolic succession of the English Church from Rome, bypassing papal authority. This political and religious appropriation of British legends created a distance for Tolkien, a Roman Catholic, from these narratives. Despite his criticism, Tolkien did attempt to integrate and rewrite elements of the Arthurian Legends into his Middle-earth narrative. His affinity for Welsh culture and language is also evident in his invented languages, one of which is heavily based on the phonology of medieval Welsh, reflecting his philological interests and appreciation for Celtic heritage. A discernible intellectual and spiritual gulf also existed between Tolkien and his friend C.S. Lewis, primarily stemming from Lewis's perceived inability to fully enter wholeheartedly into the Middle Ages and the particular storytelling mode Tolkien favoured, creating a barrier that Tolkien always felt.
Mimetic Worldbuilding and Genres
Tolkien's unique approach to worldbuilding diverged significantly from modern practices that often involve creating extensive, Wikipedia-like histories, designing distinct races, or developing scientifically rigorous magic systems. Instead, his method was one of mimetic storytelling: he immersed himself in medieval and ancient narratives he admired, such as the tale of Kormák, the Brythonic Lays, the sagas of the Icelanders, and Beowulf. He would then endeavour to write new stories "like that story but in his own world," often modifying, correcting, or even reversing elements he found dissatisfying or believed he could tell better. This process, marked by a necessary degree of authorial hubris, laid the foundational groundwork for The Lord of the Rings, even though his longer epic poems like The Lay of Leithian and The Silmarillion remained unfinished and largely unpublished during his lifetime. The Silmarillion, in particular, is often considered the "Old Testament equivalent" of The Lord of the Rings, providing the ancient history of Tolkien's world from its creation. It is composed of chapters that were possibly intended as prose summaries for vast, unwritten epic poems. While his unfinished epics might have limited his broader recognition, their existence ultimately provided the rich background for his universally acclaimed novel.
Tolkien deliberately employed various medieval literary genres in his creative process, treating them not merely as forms but as integral tools for worldbuilding:
- Chronicles and Annals: He meticulously crafted chronicles for his invented history, some even written in Anglo-Saxon, specifically the Mercian dialect. These were inspired by historical works such as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicleand the Russian Primary Chronicle, which he studied and discussed, aiming to create a sense of deep, layered history for his fictional world.
- Epic Poetry: Tolkien held a conviction that long-form narrative poems represented the best kind of storytelling. Much of his early work on the legendarium was dedicated to composing such epics, though none were fully completed. The Silmarillion comprises chapters that are believed to have been intended as prose summaries for these uncompleted long-form epic poems. While his unfinished epics might have limited his broader recognition, their existence ultimately provided the rich background for his universally acclaimed novel.
- Culture-Founding Epics or Narratives: He engaged in the retelling of narratives centred on culture-founding heroes, akin to figures such as Shield Sheafing (from Beowulf), Orpheus, Apollo, Horus (from ancient mythologies), or King Numa (a Roman king credited with giving his people piety, coinage, and laws). These archetypal heroes are depicted as imparting divine wisdom, agricultural knowledge, laws, or other civilising elements to humanity, thereby enabling the establishment and flourishing of cultures.
The ultimate success of The Lord of the Rings is attributed, in part, to its remarkable sense of belonging and its depiction of a truly felt, real place. This is significantly bolstered by Tolkien's linguistics, particularly his masterful creation of place names and personal names that possess an inherent authenticity and coherence. These names do not merely label locations but imbue them with meaning, allowing them to "hold something together," and contribute to the convincing reality of his secondary world. Unlike many constructed languages, Tolkien's sound like real places and names, even to new speakers of English, adding to the immersive experience.
Ultimately, Tolkien adapted his Universal History approach to the modern storytelling genre of the novel in The Lord of the Rings, achieving immense success. This demonstration of how ancient stories can be effectively conveyed through contemporary forms offers a valuable lesson for aspiring Christian mythic storytellers, showing a path for creating narratives that are both rooted in tradition and accessible to a modern audience.
Rehabilitation of Mythical Figures
A key aspect of Tolkien’s project involved the rehabilitation of ambiguous figures from English and British consciousness, notably elves and fairies. These beings, often depicted as sometimes benevolent, sometimes malevolent, and always perilous, were re-envisioned by Tolkien to retain their inherent danger while also possessing admirable qualities and distinct goals not abhorrent to human beings. This contrasts with many subsequent imitators who often portray elves as overly positive and benevolent, losing the nuanced danger Tolkien imbued in them. Tolkien also introduced a distinction between Orcs and elves, noting that in ancient lore such as Beowulf, both were sometimes lumped together as monstrous descendants of Cain; Tolkien’s work served to differentiate these, suggesting a "good fairy or a good Elf" type existed alongside the malevolent ones.
Beyond these folk figures, Tolkien also rehabilitated the concept of "gods" through his Valar. The Valar, presented as powerful, angelic beings, offer a readily accessible framework for modern Christians to comprehend the ancient theological concepts of principalities and powers, illustrating how divine beings, such as angels or saints, might hold dominion over the world under God's ultimate authority. These were "Old World ideas" woven back into the modern framework of Christian storytelling, making forgotten aspects of Christian cosmology comprehensible once more.
Tolkien achieved this by synthesising elements drawn from Pagan mythologies, pre-Christian traditions, and surviving folk beliefs concerning fairies, dwarves, and ogres, integrating them into a coherent philological framework compatible with his understanding of Christianity. This process exemplifies a crucial "universal history move": the careful weaving of a pre-Christian past and ancestral stories into the Christian narrative in a manner that remains faithful, despite potential accusations of syncretism. This is presented as a natural Christian impulse, akin to a bee extracting honey from various flowers, or as St. Basil taught in his address to young men on the proper use of Greek poetry, selecting the good elements from inherited traditions and bringing them into the Christian world. Universal History is always attempting to integrate the pre-Christian past into the Christian story faithfully.
Legacy and the Future of Christian Storytelling
Tolkien's work, particularly The Lord of the Rings, is regarded as arguably the most successful literary achievement of the 20th century. His innovative approach provides a significant roadmap for those seeking to develop Christian mythic storytelling in the modern era. The efficacy of his method is evident in contemporary works such as Jonathan Pageau's God's Dog series, which, without merely mimicking Tolkien, demonstrates a similar approach to integrating Universal History themes into narrative. The God's Dog series, for instance, shares more in common with Tolkien's approach than other fantasy works like The Wheel of Time, emphasizing the qualitative similarity in their narrative methodologies.
The enduring power of Tolkien’s stories lies in their ability to evoke a sense of authenticity and familiarity, making the fantastical feel real. His personal practice of telling stories to his children, family, and friends ultimately yielded works deemed worthy of publication, underscoring the intrinsic value of local, communal storytelling. This serves as an encouragement for contemporary Christians to engage in the creation of new narratives across various media, including novels, comic books, graphic novels, films, and audio dramas, drawing inspiration from Tolkien's foundational principles rather than merely imitating his specific creations. The aim is to recover a Christian Mythic storytelling tradition, using the lens of Universal History to tell stories that resonate deeply within a modern context. Tolkien’s legacy lies not only in the worlds he built but in the enduring methodology he exemplified for integrating sacred and secular history within a coherent, imaginative framework. His work is a potent and recent example that refines the understanding of Universal History itself. It is important to note that while Tolkien's work is the product of a single individual, Universal History itself is a collective expression, the voice of a people who have come to know God and seek their place in the story of His redemptive work. Thus, Tolkien's contribution provides a model for how one person can initiate such a vast project, understanding that its full realization and telling ultimately involves a broader community. His project was not simply to create stories but to foster a vision of the world in which Christian narratives could thrive in a mythical and cosmic sense.