The twelve months of the year, as organised in the modern calendar, possess a rich tapestry of historical origins, mythological associations, and ancient customs. Their names and significance often derive from Roman deities, emperors, or seasonal activities, while their Old English counterparts reflect the natural rhythms and cultural practices of the Angles and Saxons.
January
January, the first month, was known to the Romans as Januarius, named after Janus, the god of doors and gates. The word janua, Latin for a gate or opening, reflects this origin. Janus was seen as the god of beginnings, seeing both the past and the future, which was symbolised by his usual representation with a double head that looked both ways.
Romans customarilly prayed to Janus when undertaking a new endeavour, and he was also considered the god of the beginning of the day. Offerings to Janus, including meal, frankincense, and wine, had to be new. On early Roman coins, Janus is depicted with two bearded faces, holding a staff in one hand and a key in the other. He also served as the protector of trade and shipping, sometimes shown with the prow of a ship on coins. As the god of the year, he was pictured holding the numbers 300 in one hand and 65 in the other.
Janus was worshipped on the Janiculum, one of the seven hills of Rome. All the gates of Rome were under his care, particularly the archway through which the army marched to war and by which it returned. This archway was later replaced by a square temple called Janus Quadrifrons, featuring twelve windows and four doors, representing the twelve months and four seasons.
In times of war, the temple gates remained open for continuous offerings, but in times of peace, they were closed. Historically, the gates were closed only three times in seven hundred years, reflecting the Romans' constant engagement in warfare. Janus was said to be the son of Apollo, the God of the Sun. The Angles and Saxons referred to this month as Wulfmonath, or Wolf month, a time when wolves, unable to find food, became bold enough to enter villages due to hunger.
February
February did not always occupy its present position in the calendar, originally being the last month of the year. Its name originates from the Latin word _februare_, meaning to make pure. A significant festival, the Lupercalia, was held on the 15th of February in honour of Lupercus, the God of Fertility.
This festival, conducted on the Palatine Hill, involved sacrifices of goats and dogs. Priests would then cut the goat skins into thongs and run through the city, striking those they encountered. This ritual, initially performed by shepherds, was thought to purify the land. The overarching theme of the festival was purification and new life, giving the month its name. Some believe Lupercus was synonymous with Pan, the God of the Shepherds. Historically, a day was removed from February to ensure that the months named after Julius Caesar and Augustus each had thirty-one days.
In Christian tradition, the feast of the Purification of the Virgin Mary is observed on the second day of February. Roman Catholics call this feast Candlemas, a custom involving a procession with candles, which are consecrated for use in the church throughout the year. An old proverb associated with Candlemas weather predicts the year's conditions, stating that If Candlemas is fair and clear, there'll be twa winters in the year. The Old English name for February was Sprout-Kale, signifying the time when cabbage begins to sprout. This name was later changed to Solmonath, or sun month, as it marks the period when the sun rises higher, its glowing rays beginning to dispel winter's chill.
March
March, originally the first month of the year, is named after Mars, the God of War. Mars was the son of Jupiter and Juno, the king and queen of the gods, and was typically depicted in shining armour, with a plumed helmet, a spear in one hand, and a shield in the other. His chariot was driven by Bellona, the Goddess of War, who also protected him in battle. Mars was once captured by giants during a struggle for world rule, bound with iron chains for over a year, and eventually freed by Mercury. He also sustained a wound in the Trojan War.
Mars shared a love with Venus, the Goddess of Beauty, and they met secretly at night. Mars appointed his servant, Alectryon, to keep watch and warn him before sunrise, to avoid Apollo, the Sun God. One night, Alectryon fell asleep, and Apollo discovered Mars and Venus. Apollo informed Vulcan, the God of Fire, who trapped them in a net of steel, holding them captive while other gods mocked them. Upon his release, Mars, enraged at Alectryon's failure, transformed him into a cock, condemning him to announce the sun's rising daily.
The gods, though immortal, sometimes married mortals. Mars fell in love with Ilia, a Vestal priestess, who had vowed perpetual service to Vesta, the Goddess of Fire, and was forbidden to marry under penalty of death. Despite her vow, Ilia secretly married Mars and bore him two sons, Romulus and Remus. Her parents, upon learning of her broken vow, ordered her to be buried alive and her children abandoned in the forest.
Romulus and Remus were miraculously saved by a wolf and later found by a shepherd. They grew to be strong men and decided to build a city. A quarrel over the city's name led Romulus to kill Remus. Romulus, with the aid of cruel men, built Rome and became its first king. The senators, disliking his harsh rule, slew him during a solar eclipse, dismembered his body, and claimed he was carried to Mount Olympus. A temple was built in his honour on one of Rome's seven hills.
Mars took Rome under his special protection, sending a sacred shield from heaven during a plague as a divine promise of vigilance. The Romans, fearing its theft, created eleven identical shields, so similar that only priests could distinguish the original. These priests, known as Salii, or Leapers, performed war dances while carrying the shields in processions through Rome during March.
Roman generals, before embarking on war, would enter Mars's temple, touch the sacred shield with their spear, and declare, Mars, watch over us! The training ground for Roman soldiers was called Campus Martius, or the Field of Mars, reflecting the belief that Mars himself led their army to victory. March was named after Mars due to its rough and boisterous weather. The Angles and Saxons similarly called it Hlythmonath, the loud or stormy month. Another name was Lenctenmonath, the lengthening month, as the days rapidly grow longer during this period.
April
April has thirty days, a number attributed to Romulus. A subsequent king reduced it to twenty-nine, but Caesar restored it to thirty when he reformed the calendar. The month's name derives from the Latin word _aperire_, meaning to open. It is believed to be so named because in April, the earth, freed from winter's sharp frosts, opens beneath the sun's warm rays; withered sheaths fall from ripened buds, which then open to reveal their beautiful colours.
The month was sacred to Venus, the Roman Goddess of Beauty. Some theories suggest its name comes not from _aperire_, but from Aphrilis, which in turn derives from Aphrodite, the Greek name for the Goddess of Beauty. Venus was said to have sprung from the foam of the sea and ascended to Mount Olympus, where she was welcomed as the Goddess of Love and Beauty due to her grace.
All the gods fell in love with her, but she scorned them. Jupiter, to punish her pride, ordered her to marry Vulcan, the God of Fire, who was deformed and rough-mannered, having been thrown from Mount Olympus by Jupiter. Vulcan, surviving with a broken leg that left him lame, lived on Earth, creating wonderful and useful items from metals at his forge. He built golden palaces for the gods, forged Jupiter's thunderbolts, and made arrows for Cupid, Venus's son. Blacksmiths and metalworkers worshipped Vulcan, holding a grand festival called the Vulcanalia in his honour.
Cupid, Venus's son, was the God of Love. He remained a chubby boy with beautiful wings, carrying a bow and arrows to pierce hearts and incite love. Another son of Venus was Aeneas, the hero who was to found the Roman race. He escaped Troy after its ten-year siege by the Greeks and, following many adventures, reached Latium in Italy. His descendants, Romulus and Remus, later founded Rome. The story of Aeneas is recounted by Virgil in his Aeneid, which aimed to establish Emperor Augustus's divine descent from Venus through Aeneas.
Homer's Iliad tells part of the Trojan War, or Ilium, describing fierce struggles before the city walls. The Greeks, despite successes, could not enter the city, nor could the Trojans drive them from the shore. Ulysses, a cunning Greek prince, devised a plan to end the ten-year war.
The Greeks built an enormous wooden horse to hide fighting men, including Ulysses. They left it on the shore and sailed away, feigning exhaustion. A cunning slave, Sinon, was left behind. The Trojans, overjoyed by the Greek departure, marvelled at the horse. Many wished to bring it into the city, while others were suspicious. Sinon, pretending to be ill-treated by the Greeks, spoke with hatred against them.
He explained the horse was an offering to Neptune, the sea god, for the Greeks' journey home, advising the Trojans to take it. Despite warnings of hidden men, the Trojans triumphantly dragged the horse into the city, demolishing part of the wall to admit it.
A night of feast and revelry ensued, with the Trojans laying aside their armour. Ulysses and his men emerged from the horse, overpowered sentries, and opened the gates for the Greek army, which had returned. Thus, through Ulysses' trickery, the Greeks defeated the Trojans, bringing the war to an end, a conflict for which the Goddess Venus had been responsible.
The Old English name for April was Oster-monath or Easter-monath, because it was sacred to Eastre, or Ostara, the Goddess of Spring. The Christian festival of Easter is named after this goddess, originating from a Saxon feast in her honour. The custom of exchanging coloured eggs, symbolising the beginning of life and nature's awakening in spring, is an ancient tradition still observed.
May
May is named after Maia, a goddess to whom the Romans made sacrifices on the first day of the month. Maia was one of the Pleiades, the seven daughters of Atlas and Pleione. They were transformed into pigeons to escape the great hunter Orion, and then into seven stars, forming the constellation Pleiades. These stars are clustered together, with one being very faint. One account states they grew pale with sorrow after Troy's capture, while another claims the faint star was the only one to have married a mortal.
Maia was the Goddess of the Plains and the mother of Mercury, the messenger of the gods. Jupiter gave Mercury wings for his feet and a winged cap for his head to enable swifter travel. Mercury is credited with inventing the lyre, or harp, which he gave to Apollo. In return, Apollo gave him a magic wand called Caduceus, capable of turning enemies into friends.
Mercury tested it by placing it between two fighting snakes, which immediately coiled around it and remained there. Consequently, statues and pictures often depict Mercury holding this serpent-entwined wand. Besides being a messenger, Mercury was the God of Rain and Wind, and the protector of travellers, shepherds, and thieves. Festivals in his honour were held annually in Rome during May.
Atlas, father of the Pleiades, was a giant in Africa who held the sky on his shoulders. Hercules, seeking the Golden Apples of the Hesperides, asked Atlas for their location. Atlas offered to retrieve them if Hercules would temporarily take his place. Hercules assumed the burden of the heavens, but upon Atlas's return, the giant refused to resume his task.
By a clever trick, Hercules persuaded Atlas to take the sky back, allowing him to continue his journey. Later, the hero Perseus, having slain the Gorgon Medusa, showed Atlas the Gorgon's head, which turned all who looked upon it to stone. Atlas, weary from his burden, gazed upon it, and his trembling limbs transformed into the mountains that now bear his name in north-west Africa.
Hercules, a son of Jupiter and a renowned Greek hero, dedicated his life to ridding the country of fierce beasts. Enduring much sorrow and many trials due to the hatred of the goddess Juno, he was condemned to perform twelve labours for the King of Argos as atonement for crimes committed in a fit of madness induced by Juno. His first labour was to slay the Nemean lion, which he accomplished by crushing its life and then fashioning its skin into a covering he always wore.
His second task was to destroy the seven-headed Hydra; as he cut off a head, seven new ones grew. With his friend Iolaus searing the wounds with a torch, new heads were prevented from growing, and Hercules ultimately slew the monster. Another task involved capturing and taming the human-flesh-eating horses of the King of Thrace, whom Hercules fed to his own horses as punishment. Among his other labours was fetching the Golden Apples of the Hesperides and the most famous, cleaning the Augean stables, which had not been cleaned for years.
Hercules diverted a swift river through the stables, washing them perfectly clean. After a life of trials, Hercules met a tragic end, persuaded by a trick to wear a poison-stained robe. The poison consumed his flesh; unable to remove it, he built an enormous funeral pyre of uprooted oak trees and perished in the flames. The Angles and Saxons called May Tri-milchi, meaning they could milk their cows three times a day due to the abundant spring grass.
June
June is probably named after Juno, the wife of Jupiter and queen of the gods. It was held sacred to her, and the Romans considered it the luckiest month for marriage, as Juno was the Goddess of Marriage. Juno's messenger was Iris, the Rainbow, who travelled so swiftly that she was seldom seen, often leaving a radiant trail of her colourful robe in the sky. Juno is consistently portrayed as a tall, beautiful woman wearing a crown, holding a sceptre, and frequently accompanied by a peacock, her sacred bird.
A story recounts Juno's servant, Argus, who possessed a hundred eyes, closing only a few at a time. Juno appointed him to guard a cow, which was actually Io, a beautiful girl Jupiter had transformed. Jupiter sent Mercury to abduct Io. Mercury, by telling long and tedious stories, lulled Argus into a deep sleep, causing all his eyes to close. Mercury then used Argus's own sword to decapitate him. Juno, saddened by her servant's loss, gathered his hundred eyes and scattered them across the tail of her favourite bird, the peacock.
Juno possessed a very jealous disposition, inflicting misfortune upon those who angered her. At a wedding-feast attended by the gods and goddesses, Eris, the Goddess of Discord, uninvited due to her evil nature, threw a golden apple inscribed To the fairest onto the table. A quarrel immediately arose between Juno, Queen of Heaven, Minerva, Goddess of Wisdom, and Venus, Goddess of Beauty, over who deserved the apple.
Unable to decide, they appointed Paris, son of the King of Troy, as judge. Each goddess offered a reward: Minerva offered wisdom, Juno offered wealth and power, and Venus promised him the fairest and most loving wife in Greece. Paris awarded the apple to Venus, thereby enraging Juno and Minerva, who vowed to punish him. This led to the Trojan War, ignited when Paris, prompted by Venus, abducted Helen, the most beautiful woman in Greece, and brought her to Troy. Juno subsequently persecuted the Trojans who escaped the city, subjecting them to many dangers.
Despite her jealous nature, Juno offered unwavering help to those she favoured, as exemplified by the story of Jason and the Golden Fleece. Jason's father, Aeson, had been driven from his kingdom by his brother Pelias. As an adult, Jason sought to avenge his father. Encountering a swollen stream, he offered to carry an old woman across, losing a sandal in the process. The old woman then transformed into Juno. Jason implored her help, which Juno readily promised before vanishing.
Jason continued to his native city, finding Pelias sacrificing in a temple. Pelias, recalling a prophecy that he would be overthrown by a man wearing one sandal, was filled with fear upon seeing Jason. Jason boldly claimed the throne for his father. Pelias, concealing his fear, invited Jason to his palace.
During a banquet, Jason learned the story of Phrixus and Helle, who escaped a cruel stepmother on a winged ram with a golden fleece. Helle fell into the sea, now known as the Hellespont. Phrixus reached Colchis, sacrificed the ram, and hung its golden fleece on a tree in a poisonous wood, guarded by a serpent. The cunning Pelias dared Jason to retrieve the fleece, hoping to be rid of him. Jason rashly accepted. With Juno's help, he assembled heroes, forming the Argonauts, who sailed to Colchis.
The king there, unwilling to part with the fleece, set Jason three terrible tasks: harness fire-breathing, brass-hooved bulls to plough a field; sow the field with serpents' teeth, from which armed men would spring and must be conquered; and kill the serpent guarding the fleece. Medea, the king's daughter with magic powers, fell in love with Jason and aided him. Jason, relying on Medea, faced the bulls, harnessed them, and ploughed the field. When armed men sprang up, he threw his helmet among them, causing them to fight each other until they perished.
Medea then soothed the serpent with her magic, allowing Jason to cut off its head and snatch the fleece. They hastened to the shore and sailed away triumphantly. Despite further misfortunes, Juno's help ensured their return home. Jason compelled Pelias to restore the kingdom to Aeson. Medea used her magic to restore Aeson's youth and strength. Pelias's daughters, seeking the same for their father, followed Medea's false instructions, inadvertently killing him. This month was called the dry month by the Angles and Saxons, and sometimes the earlier mild month, with July being the second mild month.
July
July was originally named Quintilis, the fifth month, indicating a calendar year that began in March. In 44 B.C. it was renamed Julius in honour of Julius Caesar, the founder of the Roman Empire, as his birthday fell on the twelfth of that month. After his death, Caesar became an imperial title, surviving in names such as Kaiser of Germany, Czar (or Tsar) of Russia, and Kaisar-i-Hind (Emperor of India).
Julius Caesar, a formidable soldier and general, became Rome's first emperor, replacing the system of two elected consuls. Though he reportedly desired the title of king, he feared public disapproval and declined the crown when offered thrice by Marcus Antonius during the Lupercalia festival in 44 B.C. Caesar conquered Italy, Gaul (France), and Spain, and secured significant victories in Greece, Egypt, and Africa. Beyond his military prowess, he was a distinguished statesman, orator, writer, and historian.
His plans for Roman improvement included calendar reform, codifying Roman law, draining marshland near Rome for health, enlarging the harbour of Ostia, and proposing a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth in Greece. However, in 44 B.C., before these plans could be executed, he was assassinated in Rome by jealous former friends. Marcus Antonius, lamenting over his body, called him the ruins of the noblest man that ever lived in the tide of times.
Caesar's visits to Britain are notable. He described the Ancient Britons as numerous, inhabiting many buildings, possessing much cattle, and having various trees as in Gaul, with the exceptions of beech and fir. The Britons did not consume hare, hen, or goose, keeping them for amusement. Inland inhabitants did not sow corn, living on milk and flesh, and clothed themselves in skins.
All stained themselves with woad, which produced a blue colour, enhancing their fearsome appearance in battle. They had long hair but shaved all parts of their body except the head and upper lip. London, then a British stronghold, was likely attacked and captured by Caesar. The Roman historian Tacitus first mentions London, noting its destruction during Boadicea's revolt in A.D. 61. The Romans rebuilt it, naming it Augusta in honour of Emperor Augustus, indicating its early importance.
The period from 3rd July to 11th August was known to the Romans as dog-days, the hottest part of the year. They believed the intense heat was caused by Sirius, the dog-star. Sirius belonged to Orion, a great hunter. Diana, Goddess of the Moon and Hunting, often encountered Orion while hunting and fell in love with him.
Her brother, Apollo, the sun-god, angered by their relationship, resolved to end it. He tricked Diana into shooting a distant dark speck in the sea, which was Orion's head. Grieving, Diana vowed never to forget him, placing Orion and his dog Sirius in the sky as constellations. The constellation Orion, with its unmistakable belt and sword stars, is followed by the very bright star Sirius, described as the scorching flames of fierce Orion's hound.
Virgil, in his Aeneid, likens a Latium hero to Orion, striding through deep waters or carrying a tree, with his head shrouded by clouds. The Angles and Saxons had two names for July: Hegmonath, the hay-month, and Maedmonath, the mead-month. It was sometimes also called the latter mild month, signifying the second warm month.
August
August, initially called Sextilis, the sixth month, was renamed after Augustus Caesar. His full name was Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus; Augustus (the Majestic) was a title bestowed upon him after he became emperor. Augustus, as a young man at the time of Julius Caesar's murder, was adopted by Julius as his son and heir.
Despite opposition from nobles who had killed Julius, Augustus fought and won many battles to become the head of the Roman Empire. Upon conquering his enemies, he returned to Rome, closed the temple of Janus, and proclaimed peace throughout the Empire. His reign witnessed the flourishing of Rome's greatest poets and writers, including Virgil, Horace, Ovid, and Livy. This era is considered the Augustan Age of Roman Literature, akin to England's Augustan Age from Spenser and Sidney to Milton.
Sextilis was chosen for Augustus because it was the month in which the most fortunate events of his life had occurred: he first became consul, entered Rome in triumph three times after great victories, conquered Egypt, and ended the civil wars. To equate its length with the month named after Julius Caesar, which had thirty-one days, a day was taken from February, making August also thirty-one days long.
Virgil's Aeneid describes the wanderings of Aeneas, who, carrying his aged father Anchises, escaped fallen Troy with the remaining Trojan army. Despite reaching safety, the goddess Juno, not appeased by the fall of Troy, pursued Aeneas and his followers with hatred, inflicting misfortunes. They wandered for many years, seeking a peaceful settlement, but Juno brought sickness and scattered their fleet with storms.
They eventually reached Carthage on the coast of Africa, where Queen Dido welcomed Aeneas, eagerly listening to his adventures. Aeneas was destined to found a new kingdom, but Venus caused Dido to fall in love with him, and he lingered in her court. After a year, the gods sent Mercury to remind Aeneas of his destiny. Heartbroken but fearing Dido's wrath, Aeneas secretly set sail one dark night. Dido, upon discovering his departure, ordered a funeral pyre, placed an effigy of Aeneas upon it, and perished in the flames.
Aeneas and his companions sailed to Sicily, where they took refuge from a storm. During a festival held in honour of Anchises, Juno stirred the women to revolt against their arduous wanderings, leading them to set fire to the ships. Aeneas, upon hearing of this disaster, pleaded with Jupiter for help. The King of the Gods sent a rainstorm, extinguishing the flames.
The Trojans then left Sicily, arriving in Italy at the mouth of the River Tiber. Following the river, they reached Latium, where King Latinus welcomed them and offered his daughter Lavinia's hand to Aeneas. However, Lavinia had many suitors, notably Turnus, a neighbouring prince. Juno intervened again, inciting the people of Latium against Aeneas, leading to war between Latinus and his former friend. Turnus and Aeneas performed great deeds of valour.
Juno aided Turnus, while Venus, not forgetting her son, obtained a wonderful suit of armour from Vulcan for Aeneas, enabling him to achieve even mightier feats. Turnus and Aeneas finally met in single combat, resulting in Turnus's death. Peace was made with Latinus, and Aeneas married Lavinia, founding a city named Lavinia. His descendants reigned in Latium for many years, one of whom, Vestal Ilia, married Mars and became the mother of Romulus and Remus, the founders of Rome.
A famous passage in the Aeneid describes the shield given to Aeneas by Venus. On this shield, Vulcan, with foreknowledge, depicted the history of Aeneas's descendants and foretold Rome's glory. It showed the wolf nursing Romulus and Remus, the wars following Rome's founding, and the brave Horatius defending the bridge over the Tiber against Tarquin's army.
With remarkable skill, it depicted the sacred geese warning Romans of the Gauls' approach by night. Vulcan also pictured the famous sea-battle of Actium, where Emperor Augustus vanquished his enemies, and finally, the emperor seated at the entrance to the Temple of Apollo, receiving offerings from the conquered nations of the Roman Empire. The Old-English name for August was Hlaf-maesse, or Loaf Mass/Loaf Feast, because a feast of thanksgiving for the first fruits of the corn was held, as August marks the beginning of harvesting. The first day is sometimes known as Lammas Day, a modified form of hlaf-maesse.
September
September, literally meaning the seventh month, does not overtly suggest a god or hero in its naming convention. However, it hosted several important festivals. One notable event was the Actian Games, held on the second of the month, commemorating the great sea battle off Actium in Greece in 31 B.C. In this battle, Augustus defeated Marcus Antonius and the Egyptian queen Cleopatra. A temple dedicated to Apollo stood on the promontory of Actium, and from that time onward, games in honour of Apollo were held annually to mark the victory.
The custom of holding games or sports in honour of a god was prevalent among the Greeks and Romans. The most famous were the Olympic Games, held every four years in Greece in honour of Zeus, the Roman Jupiter. These games spanned five days and included foot-races, chariot-races, wrestling, boxing, and throwing the quoit and javelin. The victor's prize was typically a wreath fashioned from the laurel tree, Apollo's favoured tree.
A story relates Apollo's love for Daphne, a beautiful wood-nymph and daughter of a river-god. Daphne, however, did not reciprocate his affection and fled from him. As Apollo nearly caught her, she prayed to her father for assistance. Instantly, she became rooted to the ground, her limbs transforming into branches and her hair into leaves, thus becoming a laurel tree. Apollo, finding only the tree in his grasp, adopted the laurel as his sacred tree and decreed that prizes for poets and musicians—for Apollo was also the god of music and poetry—should be wreaths made from its leaves. Consequently, the laurel wreath became more highly esteemed than gold or silver.
The ancient Olympic Games are the origin of the modern Olympic Games, which have been held in Europe and America every fourth year. These modern games rotate among the capitals of major nations, with London hosting them at the Shepherd's Bush Exhibition in 1908. The Marathon Race is a key event, with the 1908 race covering 25 miles from Windsor to the Stadium. This race commemorates a historical event from 490 B.C., the Battle of Marathon, where the Greeks achieved a glorious victory against the numerically superior Persian army.
Pheidippides, a renowned runner in the Greek army, was dispatched by the Greek general to carry news of the victory to Athens, approximately 25 miles away. Despite exhaustion from battle, Pheidippides undertook the journey, enduring immense strain. He reached the city, and, falling into the arms of the Athenians who rushed to meet him, uttered his last words, Rejoice, we conquer, before succumbing to death.
Among the ancient Greek stories, that of the swift-footed Atalanta, daughter of the King of Arcadia, is famous. The king, desiring a son, was disappointed by Atalanta's birth and abandoned her on a mountain. Hunters found and raised her, teaching her to hunt, and she surpassed them all in running and the chase. She participated in a famous wild boar hunt, contributing to its kill. Her father, hearing of her prowess, welcomed her back and urged her to marry.
Atalanta, unwilling, declared she would marry only a man who could outrun her, and those who failed would forfeit their lives. Many youths attempted, but all were outrun, their heads displayed on the race-course as a deterrent. Finally, Milanion, a young man, came to the court, determined to win Atalanta. With help from Venus, who gave him three golden apples, he challenged her. During the race, Milanion threw the apples, tempting Atalanta to pause and retrieve them.
Though she overtook him twice, the allure of the third apple cost her precious time. Milanion reached the goal first. Bound by her promise, Atalanta married the victorious Milanion, their wedding celebrated with great rejoicing. The Old-English name for September was Gerstmonath, or barley month, reflecting the typical harvest time for barley.
October
October, the eighth month by its Roman designation, was a significant time for ancient festivals. A prominent celebration was held at Eleusis, a town twelve miles from Athens, honouring the Greek goddess Demeter. The Romans knew Demeter as Ceres and worshipped her as the Goddess of Agriculture, believing fields and crops were under her special care. The Greek name Demeter translates to Earth Mother, and Ceres has given rise to the word cereals, encompassing wheat, barley, rye, and oats.
Ceres had a daughter, Persephone, who often wandered with companions in Sicily's slopes and plains. One day, while gathering flowers, Pluto, God of the Underworld, abducted her in his dark chariot drawn by four black horses, intending to make her his queen.
One account suggests Pluto caused a beautiful flower to appear, luring Persephone away from her companions. As she stooped to pluck it, the earth opened, and Pluto seized her, taking her to his gloomy home. Another story states he quickly caught her, carried her to his chariot, and drove away. Reaching an impassable roaring river, he struck the earth with his two-pronged fork, opening the ground to reach his dark kingdom of Hades safely. Hades, the Underworld, was the realm of the dead, where spirits received judgment for their earthly deeds.
Pluto's throne was fed by five rivers: Styx (the Hateful), a sacred river by which gods feared to swear falsely; spirits crossed it ferried by Charon for an obol (a coin). Those without an obol waited a hundred years. Acheron (Pain) was a dark, deep river. Lethe (Forgetfulness) had waters that made drinkers forget the past. Phlegethon (Blazing) was a river of fire surrounding Tartarus, the place of punishment for evil-doers. Cocytus (Wailing) was a river of salt water, composed of the tears of those condemned to Tartarus. Far from this torment lay the Elysian Fields, a place of perpetual day and eternal spring flowers for the great and good.
While Persephone was unwillingly made queen of this sunless kingdom, Ceres tearfully searched for her daughter. After extensive wanderings in Italy and Greece, including Eleusis, Ceres learned Persephone's fate. Her joy at finding her daughter safe turned to grief at the thought that Pluto would never allow her return to the sun-lit earth.
Meanwhile, Ceres neglected her duties: flowers withered, trees shed leaves, fruit fell, and crops failed to ripen. Famine threatened, and people appealed to Jupiter. He consented to Persephone's return, provided she had eaten nothing in the Underworld. Unfortunately, she had tasted six pomegranate seeds given by Pluto, compelling her to remain with him for one month for each seed. Thus, for six months, she resides in the thick gloom of the Underworld, awaiting her return to the sun-kissed hills, where she dances with her companions amid flowers, happy in her mother's smile.
Persephone's return to Ceres bids the Earth, that for her coming yearned, its sombre garb of mourning lay aside. The sun o'ertops the clouds with wonted speed, scattering flowers of many a wondrous hue. Trees re-deck themselves in bright array, and Man delights to see the Winter drear Yield place to Spring, and Night to gladsome Day.
When Persephone must again return to her desolate home, she leaves a sorrowing Ceres. Persephone is called away, And Ceres weeps That she must go; while o'er the Earth Now slowly creeps The gloom of death; fled is that smile Of love that made All Nature waken into life, And all things fade. This cycle provides a fanciful explanation for summer and winter. The Old-English name for October was Winterfylleth, meaning winter full moon, as winter was believed to begin at the October full moon.
November
On the thirteenth of November, the ninth month in Roman reckoning, a feast was held in honour of Jupiter, the ruler of gods and men. From the clouded summit of Mount Olympus, Jupiter commanded the entire world, and even the gods submitted to his supreme will. To incur the wrath of any god was perilous, but Jupiter's punishment was unmatched in its swiftness and certainty.
He famously slew the proud and reckless Phaeton with his thunderbolt. Another example is the story of Bellerophon, a hero tasked with killing the Chimaera, a terrible monster with a lion's head, a goat's body, a dragon's tail, and fiery breath. While contemplating this difficult task, Bellerophon encountered Minerva, who, upon learning of his predicament, promised aid. She gave him a golden bridle and instructed him to bridle Pegasus.
Pegasus was a winged horse created by Neptune from the drops of blood that fell into the sea from the head of the Gorgon Medusa, slain by Perseus. Perfectly white and incredibly swift, Pegasus was known to drink at a specific spring. Bellerophon waited in hiding by this spring, surprised Pegasus, and mounted him. The winged horse flew to a great height, attempting to dislodge Bellerophon, but the hero secured Minerva's golden bridle, making Pegasus docile.
Bellerophon then swooped down from the sky, overcoming and killing the dreadful Chimaera. His task complete, he might have lived happily, but his wonderful flights on Pegasus filled him with pride. He aspired to join the gods on Mount Olympus, seeing himself as their equal. This angered Jupiter, who sent a gadfly to sting Pegasus. The winged horse reared violently, throwing the proud Bellerophon far to the earth below.
Minerva, the goddess who assisted Bellerophon, was a daughter of Jupiter, born in a unique manner, springing fully formed from her father's head, clad in shining armour and holding a spear. She became the Goddess of Wisdom, the arts, sciences, spinning, and weaving. Her skill in weaving is highlighted by the story of Arachne. Arachne, a Greek girl exceptionally skilled in needlework, boasted that she could weave more skilfully than Minerva herself.
Angered, Minerva descended to Arachne's home and accepted the rash challenge. Spenser recounts this tale in The Fate of the Butterflie. Arachne depicted Jupiter's abduction of Europa disguised as a white bull. Minerva chose to illustrate her contest with Neptune for the honour of naming a new Greek city. Jupiter decreed the honour would go to the one who presented the most useful gift to humankind. Neptune struck the ground with his trident, producing a horse. The gods marvelled, and Neptune explained its utility in warfare.
Minerva then produced an olive tree. Initially met with scorn, Minerva explained how all its parts—wood, fruit, leaves—could be used by man, and that it symbolised peace, unlike the horse, which symbolised war. The gods declared Minerva the victor, and the city was named Athens after her Greek name, Athene.
Minerva wove all this into her tapestry, depicting how she smote the ground with her weapon dread, yielding a fruitful Olive tree, with berries spread, that all the gods admired. She then encircled the story with a wreath of hoary Olives, and among the leaves made a lifelike Butterfly, with excellent device and wondrous sleight, flutt'ring among the Olives wantonly.
When Arachne beheld Minerva's rare workmanship, she was astonished and silently yielded the victory. In anger and despair, Arachne hanged herself. Minerva transformed her dangling body into a spider, condemning her to spin and weave eternally. The Angles and Saxons had two names for November: Windmonath, or wind month, and Blodmonath, or blood month. The latter name arose from the practice of slaughtering large numbers of cattle during this month to provide food for the cold and dreary winter.
December
December, the tenth and final month of the Roman year, had its principal festival in the Saturnalia, held on the seventeenth day in honour of Saturn, Jupiter's father. Saturn, or Cronos as the Greeks called him, was one of the Titans, the six giant sons of Uranus (Heaven) and Gaia (Earth). Saturn overthrew Uranus, becoming supreme ruler, but Uranus prophesied his own overthrow by his children. To prevent this, Saturn swallowed his offspring.
His wife, Rhea, hid their youngest son, Jupiter, and deceived Saturn with a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes. Jupiter was saved and, upon maturity, overthrew his father as foretold. Saturn, stripped of power, took refuge on Earth, becoming king of a part of Italy called Latium, where he lay hid. Virgil states Saturn was the first to come from heavenly Olympus, fleeing Jupiter’s arms, an exile deprived of his kingdom. He made a nation of scattered people, gave them laws, and chose the name Latium because in safety he had lain hidden in this region.
Jupiter's rule was soon challenged by the Titans, whom he eventually overthrew with his thunderbolts. One giant was imprisoned under Mount Aetna, still struggling to free himself, causing earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Another Titan, Iapetus, had two sons: Prometheus (Forethought) and Epimetheus (Afterthought). They were tasked with creating man. Prometheus sought to empower man with fire, which belonged exclusively to the gods. Despite knowing the terrible punishment awaiting him, Prometheus stole fire from heaven, bringing a burning stick to Earth one dark night.
Jupiter, enraged by the theft, chained Prometheus to a huge rock in the Caucasus Mountains, sending a vulture to feed daily on his liver, which regenerated each night, ensuring endless torture. After centuries of suffering, Hercules rescued Prometheus while seeking the Golden Apples of the Hesperides. Prometheus advised Hercules to consult Atlas.
Epimetheus married Pandora, living in great happiness in a world free from pain and ills. Mercury, the messenger of the gods, once left a heavy box with them. Pandora, consumed by curiosity, opened the box, releasing Evil, Sickness, Unhappiness, and all life's troubles, which stung her and Epimetheus. Heartbroken, Pandora heard a kind voice still in the box. She opened it again, releasing Hope, who fluttered across the earth, healing the wounds caused by her evil companions.
This cheerful creature, Hope, is aptly associated with the winter month of December, a time when Ceres and her flora mourn for Persephone yet cling to the hope of her return. Hope inspires the thought, If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?
On 25th December, the Romans celebrated Dies Natalis Solis Invicti (the Birthday of the Unconquered Sun), marking the winter solstice when days begin to lengthen. It is highly probable that Christians chose this date for Christ's birthday because this heathen festival already existed and held a similar meaning, transforming the Birthday of the Unconquered Sun, which awakens nature, into the Birthday of the Unconquered Son of God, who brought new life and hope.
Northern European races, including those in the British Isles, observed a festival called Yule around this time, their greatest feast. Yule means wheel, referencing the sun perceived as a swiftly revolving wheel across the sky. A custom involved setting fire to a straw-bound wooden wheel on a hilltop and rolling it down. Christians incorporated this into a Christian festival, hence the term Yuletide.
The origin of Saint Claus is Saint Nicholas, the patron saint of Russia, renowned for kindness and generosity, whose festival was on 6th December. The Roman custom of giving Christmas boxes evolved into the practice of hanging boxes in churches for charitable donations for the poor. These boxes were opened on the day after Christmas Day, giving rise to the name Boxing Day. The custom of having a Christmas tree adorned with toys also traces back to the Saturnalia, with Virgil describing farmers hanging tiny waving masks of Bacchus, God of Wine, from tall pines during festivals. December was known to the Angles and Saxons as Wintermonath and Heligmonath, or holy month, due to the celebration of Christmas.