The Bystander Effect
Introduction
The bystander effect is a social psychological theory that suggests that individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present. This phenomenon can also be referred to as bystander apathy. The theory was initially proposed following a widely publicised incident in 1964.
The Genovese Incident
The incident that brought the bystander effect to public and psychological attention involved Catherine "Kitty" Genovese, a 28-year-old woman who was brutally murdered in New York in March 1964. It was reported that a number of her neighbours witnessed the attack from their windows. Accounts at the time claimed that 38 New Yorkers watched as she was assaulted. The attacker initially stabbed her, then fled after someone shouted. Despite her screams being heard, and with the attacker gone, nobody called the police. The attacker then returned and continued the assault, ultimately leading to her death before an ambulance arrived. This shocked the city, not just because of the murder itself, but because of the apparent inaction of her neighbours. It was claimed that a neighbour saw part of the attack and deliberated before asking another neighbour to call the police because they did not want to get involved.
However, more recent investigations have found that many of the initial claims about the number of witnesses and their كامل awareness of the event were exaggerated. There were fewer eyewitnesses, and some who heard cries may have thought it was a lovers' quarrel. Some did call the police, and one neighbour came to her aid after the attack. Despite the inaccuracies in the initial reporting, the Genovese case became a focal point for understanding why people might not intervene in emergencies when others are present.
Psychological Research
Social psychologists became interested in understanding what could have led to the perceived lack of intervention in the Genovese incident. It was hypothesised that the presence of multiple bystanders might have influenced individual responses. Researchers began to explore how people respond in ambiguous situations where it is unclear if help is needed.
One early experiment involved the introduction of smoke into a room where participants were either alone or with two strangers. When individuals were alone, they almost always noticed the smoke and reported it. However, when in the presence of others who did not react, individuals were less likely to respond, even as the smoke became thicker. This suggested that people look to others to define a situation as an emergency. If others are not reacting, it can lead individuals to conclude that the situation is not serious.
A second experiment involved a scenario where participants heard what sounded like a real seizure over an intercom. Participants believed they were communicating with another student. When individuals thought they were the only person who could hear the seizure, they were much more likely to try and help. However, if they believed there were three or four other people present who also heard the seizure, they were much less likely to respond themselves.
Diffusion of Responsibility
The findings from these experiments and others led to the development of the concept of diffusion of responsibility. This theory suggests that in an emergency, the responsibility for helping is spread across all the bystanders present. As the number of bystanders increases, the sense of personal responsibility for each individual decreases. Each person may assume that someone else will take action. Therefore, everyone might end up doing nothing because they believe someone else will intervene.
In the context of the Genovese incident, it was thought that even if people heard or saw parts of the attack, each individual might have assumed that someone else among the many witnesses would call the police. This diffusion of responsibility could explain why there was a delay in any intervention.
While the initial narrative of the Genovese case has been challenged, the concept of the bystander effect and the role of diffusion of responsibility in influencing helping behaviour remain important areas of study in social psychology. The phenomenon highlights the complex interplay between the presence of others and an individual's likelihood to take action in an emergency.