1936-1939

The Spanish Civil War, a devastating conflict that engulfed Spain from July 1936 to April 1939, represented a clash between deeply opposing ideologies:

Christianity and atheism, traditionalism and liberalism, and order and perceived freedom.

It was a struggle rooted in centuries of decline and exacerbated by political violence and social unrest, culminating in a military uprising against the left-wing Republican government.

Roots of the Conflict

Spain, once the centre of a vast empire, entered the 20th century marked by backwardness, corruption, and political instability. The Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century left behind the moral scourge of liberalism, deepening the divide between the overwhelmingly Catholic populace and successive liberal governments.

The Catholic Church, a central pillar of Spanish society, became a mortal enemy of liberalism after its monasteries were dissolved and its public role suppressed by liberal regimes.

In 1923, General Miguel Primo de Rivera seized power in a bloodless coup, bringing a period of unprecedented stability and prosperity until 1930. During his rule, law and order were re-established, industry became tranquil, public finances were improved, and infrastructure was modernised. However, Primo de Rivera's political naivety and inability to handle exiled agitators, coupled with economic intrigues, led to his downfall.

His departure ushered in renewed chaos, with riots, strikes, and economic collapse. In 1931, King Alfonso XIII fled the country, and Spain became a republic led by radical socialists.

The new Republican government, heavily influenced by Freemasonry, immediately implemented alarming decrees, including the complete secularisation of education, confiscation of church properties, expulsion of the Jesuits, and an agrarian law based on Marxist doctrine.

Churches and convents were burned, often with government forces standing by.

A general election in June 1933 saw the Socialists lose significant ground, with the right gaining a majority. The new government began overturning the anti-Christian legislation, prompting socialists to vow a violent revolution.

In October 1934, the Asturian miners, playing a leading role, launched a major insurrection, which was quickly suppressed by Army generals, including Francisco Franco. Despite the widespread destruction, the prosecution of wrongdoers was largely a farce, leading to widespread disgust within the Army.

By February 1936, under immense pressure, another election was held. The Popular Front, a coalition of left-wing parties, returned to power amidst widespread irregularities, including vote manipulation, destruction of ballots, and intimidation by leftist mobs.

The left then further secured its majority by unconstitutionally annulling mandates of opponents and arbitrarily assigning seats to themselves.

The nation rapidly descended into state-sanctioned violence.

Within three months of the Popular Front taking power, 300 churches were burned, and public and private buildings destroyed, with police ordered to stand down. The Falange, a patriotic Christian movement led by José Antonio Primo de Rivera, was suppressed, its members arrested, and its leaders imprisoned.

The ultimate trigger for the military uprising came on 15 July 1936, with the kidnapping and brutal murder of conservative parliamentarian José Calvo Sotelo by police officers. This act convinced many within the military that rebellion was now a necessity to save Spain from "atheistic communist anarchy".

The Uprising (July 1936)

The military revolt began on 17 July 1936, led by the Army of Africa in Spanish Morocco, considered the elite of the Spanish Armed Forces.

General Emilio Mohler organised the conspiracy in the north, while Francisco Franco, initially exiled to the Canary Islands, became fully committed after Calvo Sotelo's assassination. Although General Sanjurjo was initially intended to lead the rebellion, his death in a plane crash on 20 July elevated Franco's role.

The Republican government immediately lost control of Morocco but successfully blockaded the Strait of Gibraltar with its navy, trapping Franco's forces. Lacking planes for an airlift, Franco sought foreign assistance, dispatching emissaries to Germany and Italy.

Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini immediately agreed to provide support, recognising the strategic importance of aiding Franco against Communism. Germany dispatched 20 Junkers transport planes with fighter escorts and ground backup, exceeding Franco's initial request of 10. This marked the first military airlift in history, successfully ferrying 13,962 men and 270 tons of war material across the Strait by 11 October 1936.

The Combatants

Nationalist Faction: 

Led by Francisco Franco, the Nationalist side comprised a broad coalition unified by anti-communism, traditionalism, and devout Catholicism.

- Leadership: 

Franco consolidated power, becoming Caudillo (leader) by October 1936. His cautious, methodical, and disciplined approach to warfare, coupled with his deep Catholic faith, earned him widespread support.

- Composition: 

The Army of Africa (Moroccan Regulares and Spanish Foreign Legionnaires) formed the elite strike force. The Carlists, fanatically Catholic traditional monarchists from the north, were highly disciplined and combat-ready. The Falangists, a patriotic Christian movement, grew rapidly and were incorporated into the Nationalist forces. Additionally, approximately 80,000 Muslim volunteers from Spanish Morocco served, disproportionately suffering heavy casualties.

- Foreign Support: 

Germany's Condor Legion provided crucial air power (Junkers 52 transports, BF 109 fighters, Heinkel 111 bombers), anti-aircraft guns, artillery, and light tanks. Italy supplied significant numbers of troops (up to 49,000), planes (Fiat CR.32), mortars, and machine guns, driven by Mussolini's ambition for a satellite state. Portugal provided logistical support and a volunteer legion.

Republican Faction: 

The Republican side was a disparate coalition plagued by internal disunity and ideological conflicts.

- Leadership: 

The government initially comprised radical socialists, anarchists, and separatists, later becoming increasingly dominated by Soviet-backed Communists.

- Composition: 

Initially, the government retained about half the Army, two-thirds of the Navy, and the majority of the Air Force. It armed various far-left militias, which were often poorly trained and lacked cohesion. Key factions included: - Anarchists (CNT/FAI): Sought a stateless, classless society, yet collaborated with the government. - Socialists (UGT): Held significant sway in collectivised areas. - Communists (PCE): Gained increasing influence due to Soviet support. - POUM: A Trotskyist-leaning Communist group, targeted and purged by Soviet-backed forces. - Basque and Catalan Nationalists: Sought regional autonomy or independence, sometimes engaging in independent diplomatic manoeuvres.

- Foreign Support: 

The Soviet Union provided extensive military aid, including advanced tanks (T-26) and planes, military advisors, and a pervasive NKVD network. The International Brigades, composed of approximately 41,000 foreign Communist volunteers, were organised by the Comintern, though often lacked training and combat effectiveness. France and Czechoslovakia also provided covert arms shipments.

Major Campaigns and Events

The Alcázar Siege (July–September 1936): 

One of the most dramatic episodes of the war, the Alcázar of Toledo, a former military academy, was defended by Colonel José Moscardó and approximately 1,200 military personnel and 500 non-combatants against overwhelming Republican forces.

Despite relentless bombardments and mining operations, the defenders held out, fuelled by their deep Catholic faith and an iron will. A pivotal moment occurred when Republicans threatened to execute Moscardó's son unless he surrendered; Moscardó famously told his son to "commend your soul to God, shout Long Live Christ the King and Long Live Spain, and die like a patriot".

His son was subsequently killed, further stiffening the defenders' resolve. Franco diverted his forces from the march on Madrid to relieve the siege, a decision that proved a gigantic propaganda victory for the Nationalists upon its successful relief on 27 September.

Battle for Madrid (November 1936): 

Franco's initial march on Madrid stalled due to the arrival of Soviet arms, advisors, and the International Brigades.

The Soviet T-26 tanks outclassed Franco's limited armoured vehicles, and the new Soviet planes dominated the skies. Despite superior equipment, Republican forces often lacked the training and coordination for effective combined arms attacks. The battle resulted in a stalemate, marking a turning point that transformed the war from a rapid takeover into a grinding conflict.

Northern Offensive (March–October 1937):

Franco shifted his strategy to focus on the industrially rich northern region. This campaign was marked by the infamous bombing of Guernica on 26 April 1937.

While international propaganda portrayed it as random terror bombing, the town was a military target, housing an arms industry and serving as a key road and rail junction. Despite inaccuracies in bombing (a problem given the nascent stage of aerial warfare), the destruction was exacerbated by the Basque defenders setting fire to the town upon their retreat.

The Nationalist campaign led to the capture of Bilbao (June), Santander (September), and Asturias (October), inflicting 50,000 casualties and capturing vast quantities of equipment. This was a strategic disaster for the Republicans, who lost one of their prime industrial regions and a significant portion of their army.

Teruel (December 1937–February 1938): 

The Republicans launched an offensive, capturing the provincial capital of Teruel in harsh winter conditions. Franco, overriding his advisors' suggestions to focus on Madrid, diverted forces to recapture the strategically important city, succeeding by 22 February.

Aragon Offensive (March–April 1938): 

Following Teruel, Franco's forces launched a full offensive into Aragon, annihilating Republican resistance and reaching the Mediterranean coast by 15 April, splitting Republican territory in two.

Battle of the Ebro (July–November 1938): 

The Republicans launched their largest offensive, gaining initial territory across the Ebro River. However, the attack soon ran out of steam, and Franco responded with a costly frontal assault, despite advisors suggesting a bypass.

This attritional battle saw heavy casualties on both sides but ultimately led to a decisive Nationalist victory, exhausting the Republican Army's best units and reserves.

Catalonia Offensive (December 1938–February 1939): 

With Republican morale shattered and reserves dangerously low, Franco launched a final offensive into Catalonia. His forces reached the French border by mid-February 1939, driving the Republican government into exile and ending effective resistance.

End of the War (March–April 1939): 

On 26 March, Franco's "offensive of victory" began on the Madrid front. Republican defence crumbled, and on 1 April 1939, Franco officially declared the war over. A gigantic victory parade took place in Madrid on 19 May, symbolising the triumph of Catholic, traditionalist Spain.

Aspects of the War

Air War: 

The Spanish Civil War was the first major conflict where air power played a significant role.

• The Condor Legion perfected air-to-ground support and combined arms tactics, setting precedents for World War II.
• Initially, Republican air superiority was bolstered by Soviet aircraft and skilled pilots. However, as the war progressed, German and Italian pilots, alongside Spanish crews, gained air superiority for the Nationalists.

Bombing of cities was employed by both sides. Republicans initiated attacks on Nationalist cities, while Franco later ceased random bombings of Madrid, believing they had no effect on morale. An exception was Mussolini's terror bombing of Barcelona in March 1938, which killed nearly 1,000 civilians.

Naval War: 

The Republican Navy, despite holding two-thirds of the Spanish fleet, was largely ineffective due to widespread mutinies and the murder of many officers.

The smaller Nationalist Navy, with better discipline and leadership, proved far more effective. Blockades were employed by both sides, but the Nationalist blockade of the northern coast was more successful.

Terror and Repression: 

Both sides engaged in brutal repression, though with different characteristics.

• In the Republican Zone, the initial outbreak of war led to immediate lawlessness, pillage, arson, and widespread violence against civilians. The clergy was explicitly targeted for extermination, resulting in the murder of 6,788 members, including 12 bishops – over 20% of male clergy in the Republican zone. This amounted to more than three times the number killed in the Jacobin phase of the French Revolution. "Checkas," torture prisons named after the Soviet secret police - Cheka, operated in Madrid.
• In the Nationalist Zone, repression was more organised, methodical, and selectively targeted at political activists rather than symbolic class enemies. Franco publicly warned of harsh punishments for resistance. While executions were common, particularly after major conquests, they were gradually brought under the control of military tribunals, and numbers decreased significantly after 1937.

Religious Dimension: 

The war took on a deeply religious character, particularly for the Nationalist side.

The widespread persecution and murder of Catholic clergy in the Republican Zone, coupled with church burnings, galvanised the Catholic majority.

Nationalist leaders, including Franco, framed the conflict as a "Crusade" against atheistic Communism. This contributed significantly to Nationalist morale and cohesion, leading to a massive Catholic revival that continued for decades after the war.

The Vatican formally endorsed Franco's cause in a collective letter in 1937 and later established diplomatic relations.

Propaganda and International Opinion: 

The Republicans mounted a significant international propaganda campaign, often portraying themselves as a parliamentary democracy fighting Fascism while downplaying the internal revolution and atrocities.

This was known as the "Great Camouflage". Events like Guernica were heavily exploited in the international media. Mainstream media in countries like Great Britain and America largely ignored French and Soviet intervention while highlighting German and Italian support for Franco.

Economic Conditions: 

The war had a devastating economic impact.

• In the Republican Zone, widespread collectivisation led to a collapse in food production, causing famine conditions by the end of the war. Businesses suffered from lack of discipline, increased absenteeism, and sabotage.

In the Nationalist Zone, the economy remained more stable. The currency was relatively strong, banks profitable, and inflation contained. Coal and steel production even increased beyond pre-war levels in some areas.

Aftermath

Franco's victory brought an end to the "Red Terror" and unified Spain under his authoritarian rule. He was proclaimed Caudillo, a title he held until his death.

His post-war regime was characterised by a cautious, methodical approach to governance and a firm disciplinary stance. Initial repression saw many Republican prisoners jailed, but this gradually lessened over time with amnesties and review processes.

Economically, Spain faced immense challenges post-war, with decimated infrastructure and industry. However, after a period of hardship and international ostracism, Franco's regime oversaw a period of rapid and sustained economic growth known as the "Spanish Miracle" from the 1950s onwards.

Franco's rule became increasingly associated with Catholic corporatism rather than fascism, and he maintained a consistent focus on Spanish nationalism and Catholicism. Despite international pressure and internal monarchist schemes, Franco held power until his death in 1975, carefully orchestrating the succession to Juan Carlos, the grandson of Alfonso XIII.

His death marked the official end of an era of traditionalist, Catholic Spain, paving the way for a gayer, more liberal and modern society.