The study of UNIVERSAL HISTORY explores how religious and cultural patterns manifest across various societies and historical periods, including within ostensibly secular spheres.
This analytical framework, encompassing both sacred and common spaces, reveals a persistent societal desire to connect present identity and memory with past figures, drawing from both pagan and Christian traditions. This continuity underscores a vision of universal history, illustrating how certain venerated figures, even if not explicitly holy, become the connective tissue upholding societal fabric through shared memory and identification.
Such individuals are analogous to saints, serving as iconic representatives of a people or a city. Commemoration, whether through statues, naming conventions, or ceremonies, functions as a lower level of this veneration, seen in practices such as the flag-folding ceremony for veterans in the United States.
The concept of the Nine Worthies exemplifies this phenomenon within Western Europe, representing a tradition of venerating historical, scriptural, and legendary men who personified the ideals of chivalry. This tradition, later expanded to include nine worthy women for symmetry, emerged as the concept of chivalry began to flourish in the 12th and 13th centuries, although its widespread idealisation became more pronounced during the Renaissance.
The Renaissance, surprisingly more violent than the Middle Ages, spurred a need to address the societal challenge of managing violent young men, for which the ideal of chivalry provided a framework. The first compiled list of the Nine Worthies appeared around 1312, building upon older literature such as The Song of Roland and the Arthurian cycles.
The phrase "dressed to the nines" is a historical reference to these figures, stemming from a Shakespearean play, and indicates a complete embodiment of their ideal qualities. Historical figures like Francis I of France would consciously associate himself with the Nine Worthies by dressing in the antique mode, emulating their appearance. Illustrations of the Nine Worthies frequently appeared in armorials, custom-made heraldry books for noblemen, often on the initial pages before the commissioner’s own image, thereby personally connecting individuals to the grand narrative of Western chivalry and the proper exercise of secular power.
Though the tradition solidified later, its widespread recognition implies an earlier cultural presence, with concepts and archetypes having been bubbling up in culture for a considerable period. For instance, Charlemagne consciously modelled himself after figures such as Joshua and King David, demonstrating a prior cultural understanding of these exemplary archetypes.
The Symbolism of Nine
The number nine holds significant symbolic weight, representing a triad of triads and signifying a heavenly fullness. This symbolism is echoed in various religious traditions, including the nine ranks of angels described in the scriptures and by Saint Dionysius the Areopagite, as well as the nine ranks of saints recognised within the Orthodox Christian Church. In Orthodox liturgy, specifically during the priest’s preparation of the bread and wine, smaller particles are placed on the discos or paten alongside the Lamb (representing Christ) for the Mother of God and for these nine ranks of saints, illustrating a foundational idea that a group of holy individuals naturally consists of nine.
The Nine Worthies: A Tripartite Classification
The Nine Worthies are traditionally divided into three groups of three: three pagans, three Hebrews, and three Christians. This classification integrates the three primary historical and cultural strains that constitute Western civilisation: Greco-Roman paganism, Jewish inheritance, and Christian rulership. This deliberate inclusion demonstrates a conscious effort to weave these disparate traditions into a cohesive master narrative of Western civilisation.
The Three Pagans
The pagan worthies represent ancient ideals of valor and leadership from the classical world:
Hector of Troy
Hector, the first worthy, is highly esteemed in Western tradition, largely through interpretations derived from Virgil and other Latin authors rather than the original Homeric poems. Romans, considering themselves descendants of Trojans, depicted the Trojans, including Hector, as noble figures.
In medieval retellings, Hector is often portrayed as a chivalrous knight engaged in jousting, capable of unseating Achilles but refusing to kill a downed opponent due to his commitment to fairness. His death, as recounted in these narratives, occurs when Achilles treacherously slays him while Hector is honouring the body of a fallen Greek prince.
This portrayal highlights his great valor in combat, coupled with mercy and love towards his opponents, embodying the proper, honourable use of violence within the chivalric code. The chivalric code, akin to the Peace of God in the Middle Ages, established rules for warfare, including prohibitions on fighting on certain holy days.
Hector's actions, particularly his respectful treatment of foes, stand in stark contrast to Achilles' infamous desecration of Hector's body in the Iliad, solidifying Hector's image as the ideal knight. The Trojan War, with Hector as its preeminent hero from a medieval perspective, is regarded as the foundational story of the West. While the historical existence of the Trojan War remains a subject of ongoing debate, its cultural significance is universally acknowledged.
Alexander the Great
Alexander the Great is depicted as the first emperor among the worthies. Medieval accounts do not shy away from acknowledging his faults, such as his fits of temper that led to the killing of close associates, but they also emphasise his subsequent profound remorse, even to the point of self-starvation. He is portrayed as a dynamic young genius, whose flaws were sometimes attributed to negative influences, such as a philosopher who encouraged him to seek deification; yet, his Macedonian soldiers continued to honour him as their general, a title he accepted. A notable anecdote from his life includes his seduction by Cleophys, the Indian queen, who subsequently bore him a son also named Alexander and famously bought her kingdom back through this liaison.
The account highlights Alexander's greatness not only through his vast accomplishments but also through his just and moderate treatment of conquered peoples. His death at the age of 33, the same age as Christ, was frequently noted and commented upon. Unlike some mythical tales, the medieval retellings of Alexander's life in this tradition are largely grounded in historical events, devoid of more fantastical elements such as the Gates of Alexander or the griffin chariot.
Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar is presented as an exemplar of kingship, representing the first ideal Roman emperor. In this tradition, despite modern perceptions of him as a figure who undermined the Republic, Caesar is seen through a lens similar to Dante's perspective, as setting up a perfect reign and bringing peace to the world.
He is noted for his great clemency towards his enemies, such as Pompey's army, though not necessarily towards Gauls. However, he was ruthless with traitors. His assassination by figures such as Brutus is considered a grave act of treachery against one's lord, a sin so egregious that Dante placed Brutus in the lowest circles of hell, signifying a crime that destabilises human civilisation itself.
Caesar’s death is interpreted as a necessary sacrifice for the public peace of the Roman Empire, akin to the gospel's assertion that one man must die for his nation. His assassination, far from ending his legacy, galvanised the Roman people and paved the way for the rise of Augustus. A poetic description of Caesar highlights his ascent to empire, his military prowess, and his literary skill, concluding with his sacrificial death for "wronged justice" and the "incensed gown".
The Three Hebrews
The Hebrew worthies embody righteous leadership, divine favour, and military prowess in defence of God's law:
Joshua
Joshua's narrative aligns precisely with biblical accounts, portraying him as a powerful figure through whom God manifested His power, notably by causing the sun and moon to stand still. Joshua is referred to as the "king of stars," a reference to God, and it is through his name, Jesus in Greek, that "heaven the earth and hell to bend the knee". Contrary to being a lesser successor to Moses, Joshua is celebrated for his pivotal role in leading the Israelites into the promised land and conquering the enemies of God, thus fulfilling the divine promise that Moses could not. He is lauded for his worship of the true God, distinguishing him from the pagan worthies.
David
King David's story, also directly drawn from biblical accounts, is presented with all its complexities, including explicit discussions of his flaws, such as the Bathsheba incident. The narrative acknowledges how these misdeeds led to subsequent misfortunes within his family. Despite these human failings, David remains a central figure. A subtle parallel, noted in his legend, exists between David's desire to build a temple for God and Uriah's lament regarding dwelling in a house while the Ark of God remained in tents, highlighting a thematic resonance within the biblical text itself.
Judas Maccabeus
Judas Maccabeus, a less commonly known figure in some Western traditions, is the pivotal leader of the Maccabean Revolt, detailed in the books of First and Second Maccabees. He represents the last glorious period of Jewish kingship before the eventual Roman influence. Judas is primarily included for his exceptional success as a military commander, known for his willingness to die in defence of God's truth and law.
He is remembered for leading a small guerrilla force against significantly larger armies of 40, 60, and 100,000 men, defeating nine infidel generals, and often killing them with his own hands. His death in battle, a knightly end, solidified his reputation for valor, which "always held the upper rank and worthily entitled him to the name of worthy".
The Three Christians
The Christian worthies represent the ideals of Christian kingship, defence of the faith, and ultimate devotion:
King Arthur
King Arthur's legend in this tradition primarily focuses on his role in uniting Britain, fighting pagan Saxons, and asserting dominance over Roman legates. While later narratives introducing flaws like an incestuous son are not prominent in this retelling, the question of his historical existence is addressed.
Denying his honorable acts would be "incredulity and ingratitude," asserting his place alongside historically accepted figures like Alexander and Caesar. Arthur serves as a 'lodestone' for numerous legends, though many focus on his court rather than Arthur himself. He is considered the perfect embodiment of chivalric legends, eclipsing other knights of the Round Table through his unparalleled acts of chivalry.
Charlemagne
Charlemagne is recognised as the archetypal Christian king, a figure central to the origins of Western Europe. He is celebrated for his military victories against Saracen armies and other pagans, often leading to forced conversions, wherein those who converted would face a lighter imposition of his sword.
From an Orthodox Christian perspective, Charlemagne is viewed with caution, as his reign is associated with the early seeds of the East-West Schism. His coronation was a deliberate attempt to identify himself as the legitimate Roman Emperor, directly challenging Byzantine authority.
Notably, his court theologians rejected the Seventh Ecumenical Council, referring to it as the "false synod of the Greeks," a historical fact that reveals early theological divergences between East and West. Charlemagne is also praised as a restorer of knowledge and education in Western Europe, fostering learning through monks' transcriptions and establishing institutions like the famous University of Paris.
His later years, spent studying the Bible and the works of Saint Augustine, further underscore his image as a defender of faith and knowledge.
Godfrey of Bouillon
Godfrey of Bouillon, a leader of the First Crusade, is celebrated for recapturing Jerusalem and briefly ruling it. He is unique for his refusal of the title King of Jerusalem, declaring, "Why would I bear the name of a king in a place where my savior was crowned with reproaches, why would I take a scepter in my hand where he took a cross upon his shoulders, why would I suffer a crown of gold upon my head where he received a crown of thorns".
This act of humility and supreme devotion, refusing secular power in favour of Christ’s ultimate sovereignty in the Holy City, cemented his legacy. Godfrey is considered the apex of the Christian knight, embodying all virtues. Legends about his extraordinary valour, such as fighting bears and decapitating camels, emerged almost immediately after his death.
His inclusion as the final worthy signifies the culmination of the list’s ideals, representing a principled rendering of civil power to a higher spiritual authority. Unlike his brother Baldwin, who accepted the title of king, Godfrey’s refusal elevates him as the ideal exemplar of chivalry and Christian devotion.
Legacy and Interpretation
The Nine Worthies served as widely recognised superheroes in public consciousness during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, appearing on monuments, civic buildings, and fountains. They were a major subject of drama, including plays and masks, popular among common people.
These figures were perceived as historical, contemporary, and legendary, embodying the ideal of a noble, chivalrous, and worthy individual who manifested virtues even without being a saint.
The tradition is notably balanced, acknowledging the strengths and weaknesses of these ancestors without succumbing to the temptation to cancel or destroy their memory due to imperfections. This sophisticated approach allowed people to recognise and celebrate the positive aspects of their leaders, even when those leaders were not perfect, by focusing on their participation in the chivalrous ideal.
Godfrey of Bouillon, in particular, is lauded as a prince in whom all Christian, civil, and military virtues converged without mixture of any default, establishing him as an almost unparalleled example of human perfection and earning him the honourable title of one of the Worthies of the World. The continued interest in these figures underscores an enduring appeal for models of masculinity and virtuous conduct in an era seeking such guidance.