Naval Matters in the Middle Ages

A chapter in Military and Religious Life in the Middle Ages and at the Period of the Renaissance| BOOKS

Naval matters in the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance underwent a continuous evolution, marked by developments in ship design, fleet organisation, and combat tactics. Maritime power, while initially auxiliary to land warfare, gradually asserted its strategic importance, mirroring the broader shifts from feudal structures to centralised monarchical control.

Vessel Classification and Design 

Ships were broadly categorised into two main types: long vessels, primarily propelled by oars or a combination of oars and sails, and broad vessels, which relied solely on sails.

• Long Vessels (Galleys and their Derivatives):
  • Dromon:  The large galley, renowned for its strong build and swift sailing, was known as dromon (runner) by the Greeks. In the 5th century, Theodoric commissioned a thousand dromons for coastal defence and transport in Italy. By the 9th century, Emperor Leo the Philosopher recommended two-tiered dromons, with twenty-five oars per tier on each side. Command vessels, known as pamphiles, were larger dromons with a hundred oars per tier. Smaller dromons with a single tier of oars were specifically called galleys and served as scouts and despatch carriers. The dromon remained the principal oar-propelled ship type until the 12th century.
  • Galley: Smaller than a dromon, but also fitted with two tiers of oars.
  • Galion or Galéide (later galiot): A much smaller vessel than the galley.
  • Pamphile:  This companion to the dromon saw various transformations before its disappearance in the 15th century.
  • Chelande or Sélandre:  An 11th-century vessel described as extraordinarily long and fast, with two tiers of oars and a crew of 150 men. By three centuries later, it had evolved into a large, flat sailing vessel known as a chaland.
  • Taride: A type of merchant galley equipped with oars.
  • Huissier:  Notable for a large door (huis) in its side, forward of the poop, which allowed for the embarkation of horses.
  • Chat or Chatte: Mentioned in a 1121 maritime war, this ram-armed vessel was larger than a galley, with a hundred oars, each manned by two men.
  • Bucentaures: Large Venetian galleys.
  • Sagettes or Saïties (meaning arrows): Characterised by their slender shape and speed, these vessels, with twelve or fifteen oars per side, played a role in the 12th century similar to that of the baliner, barineal, and brigantin from the 14th to the 17th centuries.
  • Fuste and Frégate: Smaller variations of the galéasse in the 15th and 16th centuries.
  • Galéasse: A large, powerfully armed galley, propelled by such long and heavy oars that each required six or seven men to operate.
• *Broad Vessels (Nefs or Round Vessels): *
  • Cumbaries or Gombaries:  These large, heavy vessels, adopted by the Venetians from the Saracens, were in use by the 10th century.
  • Coque:  An insubmersible vessel with a round stem and stern, a high freeboard, and a shallow draft, widely used for both war and commerce from the 12th to the late 15th century.
  • Buzo (Venetian), Panzono (Genoese), and Busse (Provençal): These terms referred to broad-beamed, slow-sailing craft capable of carrying large and heavy cargoes.
  • Carraque and Galliot:  These terms remained in common understanding, often associated with Spanish galleons laden with Peruvian gold and the imposing French caracks of Louis XII and Francis I. Francis I, in 1545, commissioned the construction of the magnificent Great Carack in Normandy, noted for its rich decoration, lofty decks, and towers. Henry VIII also ordered a comparably splendid vessel.
  • Galliot:  An intermediate vessel, lighter, longer, and narrower than other ship types. Henry VIII's Mary Rose, a galliot, tragically capsized due to its heavy ordnance shifting.
  • Smaller broad vessels included palandres, hourques, pataches, and mahones.
  • Caravelle: A diminutive vessel with a shallow draft, noted for its high manoeuvrability, exemplified by Christopher Columbus's Spanish caravel.

Naval Expeditions and Fleet Organisation 

While medieval mariners typically adhered to coastal routes for longer voyages, significant fleets were assembled for various purposes. Examples of substantial naval forces included:

• The Genoese fleet in 1242, comprising 93 galleys, 30 merchant vessels, and 3 large ships, engaged in a struggle for maritime supremacy against 110 Pisan and Imperial galleys.
• Early 13th-century Crusader fleets bound for Constantinople, ranging from 300 to 480 vessels, one of which was exceptionally large and named The World.
• Louis IX's crusade in 1248, which departed from Aigues-Mortes with 1,800 vessels, some capable of transporting 1,000 passengers or 100 horses.
• The combined French and Norwegian fleets of 1295, assembled for operations against the English.
• The Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, numbering 224 vessels, including numerous caramoussatsladen with provisions and artillery, which confronted a Christian force of 104 galleys, 12 galéasses, a large galleon, and 14 large ships.

Large fleets were not typically maintained permanently by governments due to the nature of feudalism. Kings and republics usually possessed only a small contingent of their own vessels. Coastal barons, as part of their feudal obligations, were required to provide ships and men for military service or contribute financially. Merchant vessels could also be readily converted into warships by adding soldiers.

The process of assembling a fleet involved the admiral publishing a call to arms in every port. A cartel—a public notice—would specify the type and number of vessels required and the expedition's objective. The prince's standard, blessed during a solemn mass, would fly alongside the cartel. Heralds announced the cartel's purport, while clerks registered volunteers and settled terms of engagement, formalised by notarised contracts. In cases where sovereign, noble, or burgess ships were insufficient, additional vessels were chartered, notably from Genoese fleets by French monarchs. Crews for chartered vessels often comprised the captains' relatives and dependents. A specialised unit, the retenue de poupe (poop guard), was responsible for defending the captain's flag, and its members were expected to fight to the death at their posts.

Armament and Tactics 

Technological advancements significantly altered naval combat.

• Fortification and Projectile Weapons:  From the 10th century, Emperor Leo initiated the practice of building towers for attack and defence on dromon decks, reaching halfway up the mainmast and housing stone-throwers. These structures were known as cages or gabies in the Mediterranean and huns in the North.
• Gunpowder and Artillery:  The adoption of gunpowder weapons in navies was gradual. In the mid-15th century, a 750-ton vessel might carry only a single piece of artillery, and a 1500-ton vessel only eight guns, with limited ammunition (25-30 rounds per gun for a four-month commission). Ship inventories from 1441 listed bombardesalongside traditional weapons such as large cross-bows, viretons, darts, long lances, and even full sets of armour for sailors. The Battle of Chioggia in 1379 saw Venetians employ cannons constructed from welded metal pieces encased in wood, iron bands, and ropes; many of these primitive guns exploded upon their first discharge. Marine artillery did not achieve significant prominence until the late 16th century.
• Combat Formations:  Galleys, initially armed with an iron spur and later with four or five cannons in their bows, consistently engaged the enemy prow first, advancing in a battle line, either straight or curved. Larger fleets, such as at Lepanto in 1571, adopted a half-moon formation, divided into distinct squadrons with smaller craft held in reserve. An 11th-century engagement at Durazzo saw Venetian ships employ fire and pitch against their adversaries.

Ship Decoration and Superstitions 

Vessels were frequently adorned with elaborate decorations. More opulent ships gleamed with white, ultramarine, and vermilion paints. Pirates and some warships were painted green to blend with the sea for camouflage. Gilding, sculpted busts, and figures embellished bows and sterns, continuing ancient traditions. Sails were typically plain white, or sometimes featured black and white patterns. Francis I's galleys were notably painted entirely black as a symbol of mourning after his capture at Pavia. The Knights of St. Stephen also adopted black sails and hulls to signify a vow of revenge.

Flags and standards were prominent features. Large banners were flown from the mainmast, while smaller pennants at the prow or on oars served ornamental purposes. The French navy's baucents, red taffeta flags sometimes sprinkled with gold, indicated a no-quarter approach in battle. Notable examples include Marco-Antonio Colonna's crimson damask pennant in 1570, depicting Christ on the Cross with the motto In hoc signo vinces, and Don Juan of Austria's crimson damask banner, symbolising the union of Christian powers against the Turks. Normans, too, displayed a fondness for brilliant standards, with Rollo's fleet reportedly returning with seven hundred banners.

Renaissance naval ornamentation reached new heights, with ships being regarded as artistic jewels adorned by sculptors, painters, and poets. A Spanish galley commissioned by Philip II for Don Juan of Austria in 1568 exemplified this, featuring intricate coloured sculptures on its stern depicting the history of Jason and the Argo, alongside allegorical statues of virtues and classical figures like Mars, Mercury, Pallas, and Alexander the Great, all rendered in vibrant gold, azure, and vermilion. This period is noted for its incongruous mixture of Christian and Pagan allegories in ship decoration, reflecting a shift in cultural and religious outlook.

Sailors harboured various superstitions, including beliefs in sea monsters, the black hand on maps marking the entrance to a sunless ocean, and encounters with hideous demons. A popular tale recounted a profligate sailor being swallowed by a demon for blasphemy.

Discipline and Maritime Law Despite ecclesiastical laws and Admiralty regulations, blasphemy was common among seamen, who frequently swore by essential life elements like bread, wine, and salt, and even by their souls, an oath strictly forbidden. Punishment for blasphemy could include fines, flogging, or even death. A 13th-century Danish code for thieves involved shaving, tarring and feathering, a gauntlet run, and dismissal from the ship.

A comprehensive maritime code governed relations on board and ensured reciprocity among vessels of friendly nations. Merchants, often spending significant time at sea, were accorded greater deference than soldiers on short tours of duty. Captains were obliged to consult merchants on board regarding perils like storms or pirates. Prior to sailing, captains and crews swore upon the Gospel to defend their vessel and its passengers. Merchants themselves would become ad hoc soldiers in defence of their floating homes.

Overseers were appointed in Mediterranean ports to regulate voyages, particularly those to the Holy Land. These tribunals settled disputes between passengers, pilgrims, ship-owners, and captains based on contractual terms. They also ensured comfortable conditions by meticulously measuring space allotted to each passenger for journeys typically lasting 25 to 30 days. Royal officials measured vessels and marked their waterlines to prevent illegal overloading.

The collective developments in vessel types, expeditionary scale, combat methods, and the increasingly formalised aspects of maritime law and culture underscore the evolving complexity and significance of naval matters throughout the Middle Ages and Renaissance.