The Middle Ages and the subsequent Renaissance period were profoundly shaped by two parallel powers: military and religious life.
Christianity, supported by military might, played a pivotal role in civilising barbaric nations and the remnants of the heathen world, ultimately leading to the emergence of modern Europe.
Through unity of faith, Christianity established political unity among hostile races, a feat previously achieved only by annihilation or the dominion of the sword. Military power generally served the Church, enabling Christianity to complete its work.
Feudalism and Societal Structure
Feudalism gradually developed, moving invisibly alongside the barbarian conquerors of Roman Gaul. It manifested through various signs, including the Gothic, barbaric Germanic, and Slavonian cultures, each more or less Christianised. This political system, inaugurated by a barbarous legal code, allowed a seignior, as the owner of land and the men who cultivated it, to infeudalise.
The mutual obligations between a vassal and his suzerain were both moral and material. Vassals were bound to loyally preserve secrets, prevent treachery, defend their lord at risk of their own lives, and ensure his honour was respected. The suzerain, conversely, was obligated to respect contracts, protect his vassal, and deliver substantial justice, as the prosperity of the fief depended on the vassal's security and welfare.
The Church also held significant feudal rights, having acquired vast territorial possessions and concessions from sovereigns. Archbishops, bishops, and abbots became temporal lords, maintaining courts of justice and mints, thus uniting spiritual and political authority. By the end of the tenth century, ecclesiastical entities possessed a fifth of all French and English soil, and nearly a third of Germany.
In the eleventh century, Europe was fragmented into numerous fiefs, each with its own customs and laws. Around these, a more numerous class of freedmen developed, gradually giving rise to the bourgeoisie, representing the labouring part of society. Communes, or municipal organisations, emerged, sometimes through struggle and bloodshed, as seen in Cambrai and Laon, but often without opposition, as in Metz and Rheims. These communal movements, particularly strong in the Low Countries, led to restrictions on feudal power and reduced financial burdens on citizens.
By the reign of Philip Augustus, the royal power began to assimilate these communal movements, weakening the feudal nobility. In England, the Magna Carta (1215–1216) also curtailed royal power and forced nobles to respect the growing towns and communes. Saint Louis in France further suppressed feudal abuses, creating a more moral chivalry loyal to the crown. The decline of feudalism culminated with the rise of monarchy, as mercenary troops replaced feudal armies, concentrating military power in the sovereign's hands.
Military Life and Warfare
Early military organisation in Europe saw barbarian kings like Alaric and Clovis employing Greco-Roman strategy. The feudal system, emerging from Germanic peoples, produced a terrible anarchy where royalty was powerless and authority fragmented. Military vassalage became a necessary consequence of feudal institutions, obligating personal service and hierarchical subordination. Frankish knights adopted Saracen armour, and full suits of armour became essential for high-ranking warriors.
[[Charlemagne]]'s reign fostered military art and progress through numerous expeditions and conquests. However, the feudal army, despite figures like Bertrand du Guesclin, was often characterised by shameful confusion and butchery in battles such as Crecy and Poitiers. The paid gendarmery, introduced later, also suffered from indiscipline.
The invention of gunpowder and artillery marked a complete revolution in military tactics and fortress defence. Early fortifications were based on Roman traditions, employing engines like ballistas and battering-rams during sieges. Naval warfare evolved from long and broad vessels to caracks and galleons, with fleets becoming crucial for dominance. Commanders like Don Juan of Austria, who secured the victory at Lepanto in 1571, commanded fleets that were often magnificently decorated, though sometimes with an incongruous mixture of Christian and Pagan allegories, reflecting the anti-religious tendencies of the Renaissance.
Religious Life and Institutions
The Church, as a central institution of the Middle Ages, established a profound new principle of life in a society in decay, remoulding and directing the world by assimilating individuals amidst barbarism. Bishops and popes became powerful figures, with the popes incessantly striving to unite all Christian peoples into one vast republic. Christianity was considered the greatest benefactor of the Middle Ages, promoting emancipation and paving the way for modern civilisation.
The Crusades
The Crusades represent a significant combined action of military and religious life. They are described as a diversion that saved Europe from the fury of its own inhabitants and from the dominion of the Quran. These expeditions reportedly led to positive internal changes in Europe, including the ending of internal discords, the enfranchisement of Communes, the decrease of feudal power, and an increase in benevolent institutions, fostering enlightenment, science, art, and literature.
From an Orthodox Christian perspective, the Crusades had a practical aspect of attempting to reclaim cities from a massive conquest by Islam across the world, including the Holy Land.
The intentions behind the Crusades are often misrepresented by modern historians. Three major groups were involved: Muslims, Orthodox Christians, and Western Christians.
The Orthodox were involved in the First Crusade only, welcoming Westerners to aid against Muslims. However, the Fourth Crusade (1204) is remembered as a profoundly negative event by the Orthodox, as Western soldiers attacked Constantinople, murdered bishops, priests, and nuns on altars, and occupied the city from 1204 to 1261.
Christian-Muslim Conflict and Heresies
Muslims are asserted to have stolen Christian lands throughout what is now Lebanon, Syria, Israel, and Egypt without permission. Jihad is primarily characterised as violent, physical, and political, with the Quran explicitly commanding such violence 123 times. Muhammad himself is stated to have led at least 25 raids to seize land and possessions from non-conflicting Jewish and Christian tribes.
Christians under Muslim rule were given the options to die or pay the jizya and obey Sharia law, which forbade evangelisation, public processions, and ringing bells. Orthodox Christians suffered greatly under Islam for 14 centuries, resulting in long lists of martyrs. Saint John of Damascus, an early Christian commentator on Islam, clearly called Muhammad Antichrist and Islam a heresy due to its mixed Christian influences.
Heresies have existed since the time of the apostles, defined as interpreting Holy Scripture by private judgment rather than Church authority. Early heresies included Simon the Magician, Cerinthus, the Nicolaitans, and the Gnostics, with Manichaeism forming the basis of many medieval heresies. Philosophical schools in Byzantium, Antioch, and Alexandria engaged in sceptical discussions regarding Jesus Christ's divinity. Major heresies of the Middle Ages included Arianism, Pelagianism, Nestorianism, and Eutychianism.
Iconoclism saw disputes over sacred images in the West. Later, Amaury of Paris taught that the law of Jesus Christ would terminate in 1200 and be replaced by the law of the Holy Ghost, denying the resurrection and hell. The Waldenses and Albigenses, often linked to Manichaeism, spread throughout Europe, particularly southern France.
The Inquisition emerged as a means of seeking out religious errors, seen as a necessary government function to protect societal stability. While the Roman Inquisition was the earliest and most moderate, it still pursued heretics rigorously.
The Flagellants, a fanatical sect, believed in self-scourging as a path to pardon. John Wickliff in England openly attacked the Court of Rome, the clergy, liturgy, and sacraments, and challenged civil society by asserting that authority required a state of grace. His doctrines profoundly influenced England and spread to Germany through John Huss, who was condemned and burnt at Constance. The Hussites continued to challenge the Church, preparing the ground for Luther's Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth century.
The Reformation, particularly Calvinism, took a violent and merciless character, leading to widespread religious wars and persecutions across Europe, including England and Switzerland.
Charitable Institutions and Pilgrimages
Christian charity emerged as a core principle, transforming Greco-Roman society by exalting humility and charity towards the poor and weak. From early empresses like Helen to later figures like Saint Margaret of Scotland and Saint Louis, the rich and high-born engaged in tending the sick, feeding the poor, and ransoming captives. Hospitals, particularly lazar-houses for lepers, became widespread, evolving into more general charitable institutions. Religious orders also focused on acts of mercy, with the Order of Mercy founded by Saint Nolasque specifically for ransoming captives.
Pilgrimages were a widespread practice, with Christians visiting sacred sites, especially Jerusalem and Rome, from the third century onwards. The worship of martyrs and relics became central, leading to immense sums being expended to acquire saints' bodies. Pilgrims, often living on alms, were received hospitably in churches and abbeys. The Crusades themselves were viewed as a large-scale extension of these pilgrimages to the Holy Land. Miraculous images of the Virgin Mary, often brought from the East by Crusaders, became popular objects of veneration across Europe.
Burials and Funeral Ceremonies
Christianity introduced the practice of interment of the dead, in contrast to ancient embalming or incineration, often swathing bodies in winding-sheets. Bodies were typically laid on their backs with the head to the west and feet towards the east, symbolising prayer and readiness for resurrection. However, exceptions existed, with some notable figures like Pepin the Short and Charlemagne being interred in sitting positions.
Coffins and sarcophagi varied by rank and period. Stone sarcophagi were reserved for persons of status, while common people were buried in wooden coffins. From the ninth to the early tenth century, sarcophagi gradually fell into disuse as people preferred underground burials due to concerns about grave robbers. Funeral art developed after the eleventh century, with tombs evolving from simple stone blocks to elaborate monuments featuring effigies of the deceased. These effigies depicted individuals with their professional insignia, such as crowns for kings or armour for knights.
Cemeteries were initially extramural, but eventually, burials occurred within churches, especially for the wealthy, close to saints' relics. The practice of burying outside churches led to the development of rural cemeteries. Funeral ceremonies for royalty involved elaborate procedures, including embalming, the display of effigies, and processions, often attended by specific social groups. The belief in the resurrection and eternal life diffused a consoling mysticism over the mystery of death, reflected in the art and practices surrounding burials.