King John III Sobieski

PEOPLE | 1629 - 1696

John III Sobieski (born August 17, 1629, Olesko, Poland; died June 17, 1696, Wilanów) was the elective king of Poland from 1674 to 1696. A distinguished soldier, he successfully repelled the Ottoman Turks and briefly re-established the kingdom of Poland-Lithuania's prominence for the final time.

Early Life and Career

Sobieski's ancestors belonged to the lesser nobility, though his great-grandfather was the renowned grand-hetman, Saint Żółkiewski. His father, James (Jakub) (1588–1646), advanced to the higher ranks, holding an office at the royal court and eventually becoming castellan of Kraków, which granted him the highest position within the Polish Senate.

John received a comprehensive education and, as was customary for Polish nobles of his standing, toured western Europe in his youth. In 1655, he initially aligned with the Swedes against the Polish King John Casimir, but the following year, he changed allegiance to participate in the effort to expel the Swedes.

Through the influence of Queen Maria Louisa (Ludwika), he was appointed to the prestigious office of grand marshal in 1665, and in 1666, he became hetman of the Polish army. His military prowess was further demonstrated in October 1667, when he defeated the Tatars and Cossacks near Podhajce (now Podgaytsy, in Ukraine). Following his triumphant return to Warsaw in the spring of 1668, he was named grand-hetman.

Marriage and Royal Aspirations

In 1665, Sobieski married Marie-Casimire de la Grange d’Arquien (Marysieńka), an ambitious young French widow. Marysieńka harboured plans for John to be elected king after King John Casimir’s resignation in 1668. However, this plan did not materialise, as the nobility elected Michael Wiśniowiecki in 1669. Subsequently, she endeavoured to secure support from Louis XIV of France for her husband’s political advancement.

Due to their frequent separations, with Sobieski on the front and his wife travelling to France, Sobieski composed extensive letters to Marysieńka, which now serve as a significant historical source.

Accession to the Throne

During King Michael’s relatively brief reign (1669–73), Sobieski distinguished himself with further victories over the Cossacks. Concurrently, he sought to undermine King Michael, whose policies favoured the Habsburgs over France. King Michael died in November 1673, and almost simultaneously, Sobieski achieved a splendid victory over the Turks under Hussein Pasha near Chocim (Hoţin).

Although this triumph did not alter the dire terms of the Peace of Buczacz, concluded in 1672, which compelled Poland to cede territory and pay a substantial indemnity, Sobieski’s formidable reputation led to his election as king in May 1674, in preference to the Habsburg-backed candidate.

Early Reign and Shifting Alliances

Upon his accession, Sobieski initially pursued a pro-French policy, aiming to conclude the Turkish war through French mediation. He signed the secret Treaty of Jaworów with France in June 1675, committing to engage the Holy Roman (Habsburg) emperor once peace with the Turks was achieved. However, this resulted only in an armistice at Żórawno in October 1676, with terms only marginally more favourable than those of Buczacz.

Sobieski’s aspirations to compensate for losses to the Turks in the southeast by securing territorial gains from Prussia, with French and Swedish backing, were ultimately unfulfilled. Furthermore, Louis XIV was unwilling to recognise Marysieńka’s French relatives as members of a royal family or to support the succession of Sobieski’s son, James (Jakub), to the Polish throne.

A significant number of the great nobles, particularly those from Lithuania, opposed the French alliance, fearing that Sobieski sought to attain absolute power with French assistance. It became increasingly evident that Poland’s interests were incompatible with those of Louis XIV, whose objective was to deploy Sobieski as an obedient vassal against the Habsburgs.

Poland, conversely, had no fundamental disagreements with the Habsburgs and, after enduring a series of Turkish assaults, came to regard the Ottomans, who were allies of France, as its most lethal adversaries.

Consequently, Sobieski distanced himself from the French alliance and, on April 1, 1683, concluded a treaty with the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I against the Turks. The terms of this alliance stipulated that each ally would provide full support to the other if their capital were to be besieged.

The Siege of Vienna (1683)

The Ottoman Empire, built upon centuries of conquest, had expanded its dominion to include significant portions of the Balkans and Hungary.

In 1672, the Ottomans attacked Poland, seizing Kamieniec Podolski and Podolia. In 1682, an anti-Habsburg uprising in Austrian Hungary, led by Imre Thököly, presented the Ottomans with an opportune moment for a new military expedition. Faced with the imminent threat of invasion, Emperor Leopold I sought a strategic alliance with Poland.

In September 1683, Vienna stood under the formidable threat of one of the largest armies Europe had ever witnessed. The Ottoman Empire advanced with tens of thousands of soldiers, seeking to extend its influence into central Europe. The Ottoman host, estimated at 150,000 soldiers, though chroniclers later inflated this figure to nearly 300,000, comprised a vast and diverse force, including Janissaries, Sipahi cavalry, fierce Tatar horsemen, and siege engineers. Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha initially employed deceptive manoeuvres, keeping his target ambiguous until the last moment, before marching rapidly towards the Győr fortress, a tactic that partly succeeded in confusing his adversaries.

By July, Ottoman banners were observed near the Austrian borders. Vienna, the capital of the Habsburgs, was a heavily fortified city, encircled by thick walls, bastions, and moats, yet its defences were dangerously thin. Emperor Leopold I, fearing capture, abandoned the city on July 7, fleeing west to Linz. Many nobles followed, leaving Vienna to a garrison of barely 15,000 soldiers and a citizen militia of approximately 5,000. Command of the city’s defence was entrusted to Count Ernst Rüdiger von Starhemberg, a man of iron will, who faced the immense challenge of holding out against the world's mightiest army until relief could arrive.

On July 14, 1683, the Ottoman vanguard appeared before Vienna, and by July 17, the city was completely surrounded, commencing the siege in earnest. Kara Mustafa was confident of a swift victory, believing Vienna would fall through starvation and fear rather than by storming its walls. His army dug trenches, established artillery positions that pounded the bastions day and night, and deployed miners to tunnel beneath the walls to plant explosives. Life within Vienna became a relentless struggle for survival; food and water became scarce, and disease proliferated in the cramped conditions. Despite these hardships, morale under Starhemberg’s command remained resolute, as he inspired soldiers and civilians to resist. The city endured for almost two months, repelling successive waves of attacks and sealing breaches in the walls with rubble and timber. Kara Mustafa, however, refused to commit his entire army to a single, decisive storming operation, concerned about the potential for immense casualties, choosing instead to intensify the siege, confident that starvation would compel Vienna’s surrender.

Formation of the Holy League and Sobieski's March

From Rome, Pope Innocent XI viewed the siege not merely as a political conflict but as a holy war, declaring that the defence of Vienna was synonymous with the defence of Europe. He urged European rulers to set aside their internal disputes and form a new crusade, which he termed the Holy League, employing diplomacy, persuasion, and financial incentives. His most significant achievement in this endeavour was convincing King John III Sobieski of Poland to commit his armies to Vienna’s salvation. Sobieski, a seasoned commander, had already earned renown for his victories against Ottoman and Tatar forces at the Battle of Cotin in 1673 and was known to his soldiers as a king who fought alongside them.

Upon receiving the appeal for aid, Sobieski did not hesitate, despite the cautious approach of his nobles who feared leaving Poland vulnerable. He declared that to save Vienna was to save Poland, asserting that if the enemy captured Vienna, they would then seize Kraków and Warsaw, making it preferable to confront them there than on Polish soil. This pivotal decision dramatically altered the course of history.

On July 16, an imperial messenger arrived in Poland seeking relief. On July 18, Sobieski departed for Kraków, visiting the Jasna Góra Monastery. On August 20, 1683, on his way to Vienna, he prayed in the church in Piekary Śląskie before an image of Our Lady, requesting victory. The Holy League, a coalition forged out of necessity, comprised Sobieski’s Polish army, along with contingents from Bavaria, Saxony, Franconia, Suabia, and forces from the Holy Roman Empire. Despite challenges posed by old rivalries and language barriers, the alliance remained cohesive under the looming threat of Vienna’s fall.

Sobieski led approximately 27,000 soldiers of the Crown from Kraków, including 24 hussar banners, without awaiting the delayed Lithuanian troops. His eldest son, Jakub, accompanied him. On September 3, the allied forces converged in Tulln on the Danube. There, Jan III Sobieski assumed overall command of the combined Austrian, German, and Polish troops, a force numbering nearly 70,000 soldiers, including 31,000 cavalry, and his operational plan was adopted. The troops crossed the Danube between September 6 and 8. Austro-German forces were tasked with attacking the Turks through the hilly terrain along the Danube's right bank, primarily engaging the main enemy forces. Meanwhile, Sobieski secretly led 14,000 Polish horsemen through the wilderness of the Vienna Forest, guided by local Hungarians. This arduous two-day journey involved moving a large mass of people, horses, and 26 dismantled cannons through dense forest thickets. By September 10, Sobieski’s army had crossed the Danube and ascended the hills overlooking Vienna. The news of the approaching Polish reinforcements significantly bolstered the morale of Vienna’s defenders.

The Decisive Battle

At dawn on September 12, 1683, the hills surrounding Vienna stirred with activity, marking the beginning of the decisive battle. The Ottoman army, estimated at around 120,000 strong, positioned its hardened Janissaries at its core, supported by Sipahi cavalry, Tatar auxiliaries, and various imperial contingents. Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha, confident in his numerical superiority and believing his army could simultaneously contain Vienna and repel the newcomers, underestimated both the resolve of Vienna's defenders and the ferocity of the Polish king marching to relieve them.

From the Kahlenberg ridge, King John III Sobieski surveyed the vast Ottoman encampment and the scarred city walls. He recognised the urgency of the situation but also understood the critical importance of patience and careful coordination among the diverse Allied units. That morning, Sobieski rallied his commanders, declaring that they fought not for crowns or territories, but for their faith, their families, and the survival of Europe. The strategic plan involved the Allies descending from the wooded hills to strike the Ottoman flanks and push towards the city, while Sobieski himself prepared the largest cavalry charge Europe had ever seen. The battlefield’s treacherous terrain, with Ottoman entrenchments and thick woods, was turned to Sobieski’s advantage, enabling him to conceal his troop movements until the opportune moment.

The Allied forces, approximately 70,000 strong, formed a wide line. Imperial troops under Charles of Lorraine advanced on the left flank towards Vienna’s northern defences, German contingents moved through the forests in the centre, clashing with Ottoman outposts, and on the right flank, concealed among the hills, Sobieski positioned his 20,000 Polish cavalry, awaiting the decisive strike. The battle commenced at 8 AM, with infantry and artillery bravely pushing the Turks back towards Unsdorf. Sobieski and the hussars commanded the right wing, alongside Saxon, Bavarian, Swabian-Frankish, and Lower-Rhine troops. By midday, the conflict was in full fury, marked by thunderous cannon fire, musket volleys, and brutal melee. From within Vienna, Starhemberg ordered desperate sorties against the Ottoman siege lines, burning siege works and distracting the enemy.

The Allies pressed slowly but steadily, driving the Ottomans back from the ridges. Kara Mustafa, recognising the escalating danger, committed more troops, determined to hold his ground, but each wave of resistance was met with greater ferocity.

The Winged Hussars' Charge

As the sun began to descend, Sobieski discerned his moment. The Ottoman lines, battered and stretched from hours of fighting, had begun to waver; while the Janissaries still held firm near the city, the flanks were collapsing under Allied pressure. He turned to his Polish Hussars, the legendary winged cavalry, whose gleaming armour and great feathered wings rising from their saddles presented a sight both terrible and magnificent. The wooden frames fitted with eagle feathers on their backs rattled with a ghostly hiss in the wind, a sound that instilled terror in both men and horses, making them appear like warriors descended from the heavens.

Sobieski, placing himself at the very tip of the spear, personally commanded the right flank—a rare act for a monarch. He understood that a single, decisive blow was required to shatter the enemy's resolve. Raising his sword, he issued the command to charge for Vienna, for Poland, and for Christendom, in the name of God and the Blessed Virgin. The trumpets sounded, and the earth trembled as the charge began. The thunder of hooves echoed across the valley as nearly 20,000 horsemen, including Polish Hussars and German Cuirassiers, surged forward, their speed increasing as they poured down from the ridges of the Kahlenberg.

The Ottomans were taken by surprise, having battled infantry for hours without anticipating a cavalry strike of such magnitude. Kara Mustafa’s soldiers attempted to form defensive lines, but it was too late. When the Hussars crashed into them, it was like a thunderbolt from the sky. The sheer weight and momentum of the charge smashed through the Ottoman ranks, buckling Sipahi cavalry and crumbling infantry formations. The Hussars drove deep into the heart of the Ottoman camp with unmatched ferocity, followed by other Allied cavalry, which exploited the breach, cutting down enemies and instigating widespread panic. Sobieski and his men advanced directly towards Kara Mustafa’s command post. The Grand Vizier fled hastily, his army dissolving around him. What began as a confident siege ended in a devastating rout.

From the city walls, the defenders of Vienna watched in awe as the winged horsemen stormed through the Ottoman camp, the enemy scattering in terror. Cheers erupted from the battered garrison as the truth became clear: Vienna had been saved. This cavalry charge, led by the Polish Hussars, stood as the largest and most decisive cavalry assault in European history.

Aftermath and Pursuit

As dusk settled, the once mighty Ottoman army was in full retreat, abandoning its cannons, tents, and supplies in a desperate flight eastward. Kara Mustafa’s grand gamble had failed, and the gateway to Europe remained closed. Sobieski’s forces pursued the fleeing Ottomans relentlessly, transforming the retreat into a catastrophe. The Ottoman command structure disintegrated, leading to chaos, with messages failing to reach units, orders going unheeded, and panic spreading rapidly. Soldiers, who had previously fought with discipline, turned their weapons on one another in a desperate attempt to escape the carnage. Sobieski’s strategy, a combination of patience, deception, and precision, had avoided unnecessary losses and achieved maximum impact. His coordination with Imperial commanders ensured that the Ottoman army had no opportunity to regroup, turning their retreat into a complete disaster. Sobieski maintained strict discipline among his troops, keeping looting to a minimum and focusing primarily on the pursuit and neutralisation of the enemy.

The Ottoman forces suffered approximately 20,000 killed and 5,000 wounded, while the Allies recorded 1,500 killed and about 2,500 wounded. Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa was later strangled by the Sultan for his failure in the Battle of Vienna and the unsuccessful military expedition. On the night following the battle, from the captured vizier’s tent, Sobieski dispatched two letters: one to Pope Innocent XI, bearing the declaration Venimus, vidimus et Deus vicit (We came, we saw and God conquered), and another to his wife, Marysieńka, proclaiming that God and their Lord blessed forever had granted such victory and glory to their nation as past ages had never heard of.

The day after the battle, King Sobieski toured the liberated city and later dined with General Starhemberg and other princes. He joyfully stated that if he were ever again given command of such a great army, the whole world would tremble before him. He conversed in Turkish with captured noble lords from the grand vizier’s court, who revealed Kara Mustafa’s despair upon witnessing the Christian army’s strength. Sobieski received the grand vizier’s valuable possessions, including a large gold shield set with diamonds, his horse and its gear, and his many tents. Following the meal, Jan III proceeded to the Cathedral of Saint Stephen to offer prayers of thanksgiving for the victory. Although initial orders forbade dismounting and plundering of the abandoned enemy camp, the King granted permission for it the following day. The victory at Vienna conclusively halted Ottoman expansion into central Europe.

Relations with Leopold I and Post-Vienna Campaigns

Emperor Leopold I arrived in Vienna soon after the battle. General Starhemberg formally welcomed him and presented him with the keys to the city, during which Sobieski praised Starhemberg’s loyalty, courage, and vigilance in the Emperor’s presence. Leopold I then joined Sobieski, the dukes of Bavaria and Saxony, and the Duke of Lorraine for lunch, where he commended the bravery of each, particularly Jan III Sobieski and the Saxon prince, who had continued to participate in the battle despite being wounded.

During this luncheon, the Saxon prince seized the opportunity to inquire about the situation in Hungary. He expressed curiosity regarding when the Emperor would grant Hungarians life and freedom, renew their privileges, and permit Evangelicals to profess their religion, advocating for the survival of all churches in Hungary. He also raised the matter of the Hungarian leader Thököly’s fate. In this conversation, the Duke of Saxony sought further allies to establish a bulwark of Christianity against the Turks, mentioning Transylvania, Wallachians, and Moldovans, with the intention of expanding the Christian league to include Evangelicals and Protestants. This, he argued, would also benefit countries like Spain and Portugal, which were unable to defend themselves against Muslims, and enable the Christian clergy to regain abandoned properties and monasteries, thereby making the Holy See more prosperous and stronger. Concurrently, the clergy was exhorted not to interfere in state matters. Emperor Leopold I responded by expressing his willingness to pardon Thököly and other Hungarians, as well as Evangelicals and Protestants residing in Hungary. He affirmed his belief that, with the assistance of Christian troops, including Protestant and Evangelical forces, Hungary would regain its desired freedom. He further stated his intention to entrust Hungarians with their churches and allow Evangelicals and Protestants to practise their religion and renew their privileges, asserting that no cleric would prevent him from doing so as long as he remained Emperor. The Polish king also spoke on the matter, supporting Thököly’s initiatives. Following these discussions, they exchanged good wishes and deliberated on strategies to expel the Turks from Europe and conquer their fortresses, given the strength of their combined army.

Despite the triumph, relations between Sobieski and Emperor Leopold I soon deteriorated, exacerbated by differences in temperament and conflicting political objectives. Leopold I exhibited a perceived lack of respect towards Polish troops; he did not remove his hat during an army inspection and the presentation of Polish banners, forbade the provision of food to Polish units, and refused to permit the burial of fallen Poles in Vienna, instead designating distant cemeteries typically reserved for Turkish soldiers. There were even instances of fire being opened on hungry Polish soldiers attempting to enter Vienna. These incidents fostered a common sentiment among Polish soldiers, expressing the hope that "this pride perish completely".

Sobieski’s strategic ambition was to liberate Moldavia and Wallachia (present-day Romania) from Ottoman rule and extend Poland’s influence to the shores of the Black Sea. However, his advances into Moldavia between 1684 and 1691 were largely unsuccessful, and during the final campaign, he narrowly escaped capture. He was ultimately unable to achieve this objective. Sobieski concluded the "Eternal" Peace of 1686 (the Grzymułtowski Peace) with the Russians, who, despite being traditional enemies, showed willingness to join the league against the Turks. Under this treaty, Kiev, which had been under temporary Russian rule since 1667, was permanently ceded by Poland. Despite the setbacks experienced after 1683, Sobieski successfully protected southeastern Poland from the threat of Ottoman and Tatar attacks.

The Battle of Vienna directly led to the signing of the anti-Turkish coalition of the Holy League in Linz. This initiated a prolonged period of warfare, which saw the conquest of Buda in 1686, the capture of Azov by the Russians in 1696, and the Battle of Zenta in 1697. The Ottomans were eventually compelled to sign the Peace of Karłowice in 1699. The territories that Poland had lost in 1672 were only recovered in 1699, three years after Sobieski’s death. Sobieski strategically avoided waging war on his own territory, instead funding expeditions with imperial and papal money. These initiatives presented several opportunities for the Republic of Poland, though they were not fully exploited.

Later Years and Legacy

In the final years of his life, from 1691 until his death in 1696, Sobieski frequently suffered from serious illness and contended with internal disputes among the nobility and within his own family. His eldest son, James, was bitterly opposed to the queen and his younger brothers. All of Sobieski’s sons were interested in succeeding to the throne and sought assistance from either the Emperor or France. The marriage of his daughter Kunegunda to Maximilian II Emanuel, elector of Bavaria, in 1694, was a singular positive event during these rather sombre years.

Although the latter half of his reign was less illustrious, the personal wealth of the royal couple continued to increase, as they adeptly obtained money in exchange for offices and favours. Consequently, Sobieski bequeathed a considerable fortune upon his death. He invested significant sums in his residences at Żółkiew and Jaworów, and most notably in the palace of Wilanów near Warsaw, an exquisite example of Baroque architecture. Sobieski was also a notable patron of poets and painters. Of all the Polish rulers of the 17th century, he was the most educated and demonstrated the greatest interest in literature and cultural life.

In domestic policy, Sobieski achieved the least success. All his efforts to strengthen the position of the crown and stabilise the army completely failed, and even his own sons opposed him. After the great victory of 1683, the nobles displayed little interest in further defending the country, and the Lithuanian magnates engaged in internecine conflict rather than combating the Turks. Thus, despite being a brilliant general and organiser, John Sobieski was unable to prevent rebellion within his family and the dissension among his subjects, factors that ultimately contributed to Poland’s downfall in the 18th century, rendering him a somewhat tragic figure. His unyielding struggle against Ottoman power in Europe remained the cornerstone of his foreign policy, to which all other foreign relations were closely linked. The victory at Vienna and his decisive leadership became legendary, forever immortalised in memory and art. This triumph secured not merely a city but the future of a continent, inspiring Europe with the profound lesson that courage, strategy, and unity could overcome even the most overwhelming threats.