Crusades

Introduction to the Crusades

The Crusades represent a defining period in medieval history, marked by a complex interplay of religious devotion, political objectives, and military strategies.

Primarily, they sought to reclaim territories, most notably the Holy Land, from what was perceived as a vast expansion by Islam across the globe. The movement was characterised by genuine religious fervour, alongside evident greed and ambition.

The Orthodox Christian Perspective

The Orthodox Christian experience during the Crusades and their wider historical interactions with Islam stands in stark contrast to that of Western Europe, shaped by centuries of direct engagement and profound betrayal. Orthodox Christians suffered more significantly under Islam than Westerners, drawing on fourteen centuries of lived experience with Muslims.

Muslim expansion constituted the theft of Christian lands across vital regions like Lebanon, Syria, Israel, and Egypt, without prior consultation or consent. Christians in these areas were often given the options to "die or pay the jizra" (a tax on non-Muslims) and to obey Sharia law, which imposed severe restrictions, forbidding evangelisation, public processions, and bell-ringing, which were integral to Christian life and worship.

The Islamic concept of "jihad" encompasses violent physical and political aspects, not solely spiritual work, with the Quran explicitly commanding political physical violence. Muhammad himself is recorded to have led at least 25 raids to seize land and possessions from Jewish and Christian tribes who were not in conflict with him.

The earliest Christian commentary on Islam, from Saint John of Damascus, regarded Muhammad as the Antichrist and Islam as a heresy due to its clear Christian influences within the Quran. Conversion to Christianity in Muslim lands remains forbidden and is often punishable by death. The Orthodox Church maintains a remarkably long historical memory, where events like the fall of Constantinople in 1453 are "recent", in stark contrast to a typically shorter historical perspective in the West.

The Fourth Crusade

A particularly scarring event from the Orthodox perspective was the Fourth Crusade in 1204. Western crusaders, ostensibly on their way to liberate the Orthodox from Islam, instead attacked Constantinople.

During this assault, they murdered Orthodox bishops, priests, and nuns on their altars, and occupied the city until 1261, installing Latin bishops. This act is considered a profound and unforgivable betrayal by the Orthodox, an event that is never forgotten. Pope John Paul II's apology centuries later for these actions highlights the enduring significance of this historical wound.

The relationship between the Latins (Western Europeans) and the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire was marked by a constant shift from allies to rivals. The Byzantine court initially viewed Westerners as "inferior" and "uncultured". However, facing desperation from Norman and Seljuk invasions, Emperor Alexios I Komnenos sought aid from the West, which served as a bridge between these worlds. Despite this, Byzantine emissaries sometimes faced disrespect, such as Liutprand, Bishop of Cremona, being forced to stand in the rain and insulted by Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas.

During the First Crusade, Alexios I Komnenos participated and welcomed the Westerners, but the Orthodox believed that events went wrong. From that moment on, they preferred no further involvement with the Crusades.

Crusader actions during the People's Crusade, where they sacked and burned palaces in Constantinople and stole lead from church roofs, were seen as abominable. Later, Alexios's advice to Peter the Hermit's contingent to wait for reinforcements outside the city walls was seen as a "grave insult".

The capture of Nicea by Byzantine diplomacy, not outright crusader force, surprised and perplexed some crusaders who questioned the true purpose of their expedition. The "greatest gulf of disagreement" eventually formed between the Orthodox and Latins, leading to the devastating sack of Constantinople in 1204, an event likened to the fall of Troy.

Motivations and Call to Arms for the Crusades

The primary motivation for the Crusades was to deliver the holy places and to succour Eastern Christians experiencing hardships under infidel rule.

Pope Urban II's call at the Council of Clermont in 1095 was pivotal, urging Christendom to unite and direct their conflicts against the Muslims. The rallying cry, "God wills it!" (Dieu le veut!), resonated across Europe, and crusaders were encouraged to bear the cross on their arms and standards. A significant inducement was the promise that death on the expedition for the love of God would result in the forgiveness of sins.

Pope Urban II's speech at Clermont is considered one of the most influential in history. Peter the Hermit played a crucial role in stirring popular enthusiasm, captivating thousands across northern France with fervent preaching about the miseries of Eastern Christians and the necessity of delivering the holy places. He spoke of the profanation of holy places and Christian blood shed in Jerusalem, appealing to divine testimony and showing his crucifix. His audiences regarded him as a divine envoy, preserving even hair from his mule as relics.

The Papacy, under figures like Leo IX, Gregory VII, and Urban II, actively sought to increase its power and authority over the Catholic world. Urban II, in particular, repackaged the existing concept of pilgrimage—already a popular means for nobility to repent sins—with a new purpose.

This new purpose aimed to resolve domestic disputes within Western Europe while simultaneously boosting the legitimacy of the Papacy in both the West and the East.

Agents were dispatched throughout Europe to exaggerate reports of violent barbarians defiling and harassing innocent pilgrims and destroying holy sites. The armed pilgrimage was open to all but was intentionally directed at the warrior class of knights, generally excluding peasants, women, children, the elderly, and most clergy unless special permission was granted.

Participants were expected to pay their own expenses, wear a cross on their shoulder (not to be removed until their return), and those who failed their oath were to be treated as outlaws. Property belonging to crusaders was legally protected for three years.

Beyond religious zeal, social and economic factors contributed. The technological and agricultural innovations of the 11th century had enriched noble families, who, due to primogeniture, left younger sons without purpose, often turning them to internal conflicts. The idea of a "just war" appealed to these lords.

A widespread frenzy was fuelled by a series of plagues and famines between 1092 and 1095, leading many to embrace the notion of journeying to the Holy Land as a land of "milk and honey" and a remedy for human sin.

The First Crusade (1095–1099)

The First Crusade commenced with various popular movements. Peter the Hermit's impassioned preaching led to the People's Crusade, which included a significant number of commoners and some nobles.

Initial forces suffered substantial losses against Hungarians and Byzantines before being largely massacred by Kilij Arslan's forces near Nicea. The "Prince's Crusade," a more organised military expedition, followed, assembling a large and diverse army comprising Franks, Flemings, Normans, English, Scots, Italians, Greeks, and Armenians.

A key figure was Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lorraine, who, like other leaders, swore an oath to Emperor Alexios I Komnenos to return any land conquered from the Turks to the Byzantine Empire. Raymond of Toulouse, however, initially showed stubbornness in refusing this oath.

A pivotal event was the Siege of Nicea in 1097, involving siege engines and sappers, with Byzantine naval support surrounding the city. Nicea ultimately surrendered to Emperor Alexios's forces, a fact that perplexed some crusaders who had demonstrated their martial prowess but saw the city taken by the Byzantines through diplomacy. The Battle of Dorylaeum in 1097 involved a Seljuk ambush; Bohemond of Taranto's leadership was crucial in rallying his men, leading to a significant Christian victory.

Internal challenges and a lack of discipline plagued the crusader forces. The discovery of the Holy Lance by Peter Bartholomew during the protracted Siege of Antioch greatly boosted crusader morale. Peter Bartholomew later leveraged claimed visions to assert the Lance's authenticity and boost his own legitimacy, though he eventually died in a trial by fire to prove his claims. The siege of Antioch was long and difficult, marked by starvation and disease. After its capture, internal disputes arose over its control, with Bohemond aiming to keep it despite oaths to Alexios.

The capture of Jerusalem in 1099 was brutal, marked by psychological warfare, mass slaughter, and the disembowelling of bodies for swallowed coins, though this last act was widely condemned by chroniclers.

Godfrey of Bouillon was chosen to rule Jerusalem, adopting the title "Advocate of the Holy Sepulchre" to distinguish him as a protector subordinate to the Church, after clergy resisted the idea of a layman ruling the city of God.

The Battle of Ascalon in 1099 saw the Fatimid vizier Al-Afdal's forces routed by the Crusaders, but the city itself was not captured due to infighting among the Latin forces, allowing the Fatimid navy to maintain a foothold for over half a century.

Later Crusades and Their Impact

Following the First Crusade, other expeditions were launched. The Second Crusade was preached by Saint Bernard at Vézelai in 1146. The Third Crusade involved prominent figures like Philip Augustus and Richard Cœur-de-Lion.

The Fourth Crusade in 1204 holds particular significance from the Orthodox Christian perspective. Western crusaders, ostensibly on their way to aid the Orthodox against Islam, instead diverted their efforts to attack Constantinople, the heart of the Eastern Roman Empire.

Later crusades included the Seventh Crusade (1244) led by King Louis IX, who was taken prisoner by the Saracens and ransomed. He also undertook an Eighth Crusade in 1270, during which he died, marking the last of the "heroic list" of crusading expeditions. Calls for crusades in the 15th and 16th centuries, such as those against Mahomet II or the Turks at Lepanto in 1571, largely failed to resonate with princes or peasants in the same way, indicating a decline in religious enthusiasm and a more sceptical society.

Despite the internal conflicts and ultimate failure to maintain lasting control over the Holy Land, the Crusades instigated a complete revolution in the manners and customs of Western nations.

Immediate consequences included the suppression of servitude, the founding of free towns, the alienation and division of feudal lands, and the development of the communal system. Knighthood assumed a more regular and solemn character, judiciary duels diminished, and various religious orders were founded or gained prominence.

Military and Religious Life in the Middle Ages

Christianity played an immense role in shaping medieval society, civilising barbaric nations and establishing political unity through shared faith, a stark contrast to earlier methods of achieving unity through annihilation and oppression.

The Church was the greatest benefactor of the Middle Ages, promoting the idea of a common origin and destiny for all humanity, which fostered emancipation and laid the groundwork for modern civilisation. Bishops actively shaped legislation with Christian morality and preserved national unity. Popes, too, worked tirelessly to convert Christian peoples into a vast republic, a "sublime idea" stemming from doctrinal unity.

Military power generally placed itself at the service of the Church, enabling its work. Historical figures like Charlemagne, Godfrey of Bouillon, and Saint Louis exemplify this combined action of military and religious life. However, military life, especially under feudalism, also brought terrible anarchy, with royalty being powerless and private warfare becoming legal for centuries, leading to disorder, violence, and oppression. This "feudal brigandage" hindered Christianity's beneficent influence. The Church sought to moderate these excesses by creating chivalry, seen as the "noblest military institution". Chivalry represented the Christian form of the profession of arms, with the primary duty "to defend in this world the weakness of all, but especially the weakness of the Church, of justice, and of right". It served as an armed force for defenceless truth and justice.

The Crusades provided a diversion that utilised this pervasive warlike spirit, effectively saving Europe from the fury of its own inhabitants and the dominion of the Quran. This resulted in an end to internal discords, the enfranchisement of Communes, a decrease in feudal power, and an increase in royal influence.

Military Orders emerged as a unique institution, combining Church and chivalry, war and religion. These orders included:

• The Hospitallers (Order of Saint John of Jerusalem): Founded in the mid-11th century to shelter poor pilgrims in Jerusalem. They later evolved into a military order, taking vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, alongside the exercise of arms to defend the Holy Land. They assumed the name Knights of Rhodes after a significant victory.
• The Knights Templars: Established around 20 years after the Hospitallers, they followed austere rules, including perpetual exile and war for the holy places until death. They were forbidden from asking or giving quarter in battle and wore white robes with a red cross. They were feared by unbelievers, known for their gentleness and courage.
• The Teuton Knights: German Crusaders who obeyed the rules of Saint Augustin and possessed similar privileges to the Hospitallers and Templars. They wore a white mantle with a broad black cross.

Pilgrimages were a significant aspect of medieval religious life, with Jerusalem and Rome being primary destinations. These pilgrimages, especially to the Holy Land, often involved encounters with "infidel profanations" and considerable obstacles. Crusaders frequently brought back relics from the East, which were then venerated across Europe. The Crusades themselves can be seen as a large-scale application of these pilgrimages to the Holy Land.

Challenges and Internal Dynamics of Crusader Armies

The Crusades were complex and multifaceted undertakings that rigorously tested the leadership and resolve of those involved. Internal conflicts and a persistent lack of discipline among the aristocratic fighting forces were constant challenges. The armies often faced severe logistical difficulties, frequently running low on provisions and funds, which led to infighting and raiding. Examples of such internal strife include the disputes over leadership and control of conquered cities like Antioch. The People's Crusade, for instance, engaged in looting and violence against Byzantine populations.

The expedition's cohesion was often fragile, as evidenced by mass desertions, starvation, disease, and shipwreck. The infamous act of cannibalism at Ma'arrat al-Numan by some crusaders, although condemned by contemporary chroniclers, underscored the depths of desperation and savagery reached during the campaigns. This brutality, ironically, sometimes served to intimidate enemy garrisons. The struggle for control between powerful figures like Bohemond and Raymond of Toulouse continued even after major victories, pulling the expedition in "three separate directions" after the death of the moderating influence of Bishop Adhemar. Leaders like Peter Bartholomew also sought to reshape politics and boost their own legitimacy through claimed visions, which could further inflame tensions.