Chivalry: An Overview

Chivalry, a concept unique to the European Middle Ages, encompassed a distinct blend of manners, ideas, and customs. It experienced a rapid ascent following its inception but began a gradual decline towards the close of the thirteenth century.

The role of ladies was notably prominent within chivalry; they were known to arm knights, bestow the order of knighthood, and award prizes of honour.

Origins and Early Development

The origins of chivalry can be traced through documents such as the Eddas, Tacitus's writings, and the Dano-Anglo-Saxon poems of Béowulf. Between the seventh and eleventh centuries, a certain rudeness of origin was still evident among the Franks, whose bravery was characterised by bloodshed, fearlessness, and sparing no one.

In southern Europe, particularly in Provence, a gentler disposition prevailed, and by the eleventh century, chivalric gallantry was regulated by fixed laws, which gave rise to a learned and refined school of poetry.

This spirit of gallantry and poetry subsequently influenced Italy and Sicily, and gradually German chivalry, where minnesingers adapted the Teutonic language to reflect the softer Provençal muse. In Great Britain, chivalry remained feudal and aristocratic, whereas in Spain, it was passionately embraced by the noble descendants of the Goths and Iberians, whose centuries-long conflict with the Arabs was akin to a continuous tournament.

The Ideals and Duties of Knighthood

At its core, chivalry was envisioned as a fraternal association or enthusiastic compact among individuals possessing feeling, courage, delicacy, and devotion. It represented the Christian form of the profession of arms. The primary duty of a knight was to defend the weakness of all, particularly the Church, justice, and right. Knights functioned as an armed force dedicated to the service of truth and justice, which were otherwise defenceless.

Connection with the Church

The Church held a significant relationship with chivalry, seeking to infuse knights with sentiments of Christian charity and cautioning them against an overly bellicose (aggressive, willingness to fight) spirit.

Knights were frequently regarded as a form of Levite, with a great resemblance noted between the duties of a knight and those of a priest. The investiture of knighthood was even termed an 'ordination'. While the Church never prohibited legitimate wars, it consistently endeavoured to temper the romantic and warlike inclinations of chivalry. A solemn blessing of a knight's sword included prayers for strength, courage for defence of faith and justice, and an increase of faith, hope, and charity, advising the knight to wound no one unjustly and to defend all that is just and right.

Education and Training of a Knight

The path to knighthood began at the age of seven, when a noble's son was removed from the care of women and entrusted to men.

The development of a knight in the Middle Ages involved a structured progression through various stages, from childhood education to the solemn ceremony of knighthood itself. This process was designed to instil values of chivalry, devotion, and military prowess.

Early Education (Page):

From the age of seven, a noble's son (or even a commoner's son intended for knighthood) was taken from the care of women and entrusted to men. - During this period, the youth was taught obedience, as it was considered "proper that he should learn to obey before he governs". - Chivalric code often required a knight to place his son in the service of another knight, rather than keeping him at home, to avoid paternal biases and weaknesses. - These young novices, known as pages, varlets, and damoiseaux, performed humble and domestic duties for their masters and mistresses. They accompanied them on travels and hunts, formed part of their suites at ceremonies, wrote letters, carried messages, and served at meals. - This "temporary and casual servitude" was not seen as humiliating, but rather as a way to strengthen ties of respect, obedience, and sympathy. - Their moral and religious education was paramount, teaching them to love God and respect women. - Pages were encouraged to choose an ideal "sovereign" lady whom they would serve with delicacy and devotion. - They began to practise rudimentary knightly skills, such as wielding the lance and sword, and engaging in mock combats and duels.

• Esquire:
  • The transition from page to esquire typically occurred not before their fourteenth year.
  • This change was marked by a religious ceremony to consecrate their knightly vocation and hallow the use of arms. The novice would receive a consecrated sword from a priest, promising to wield it for religion and honour.
  • Esquires were given a higher position within their lord's household, attending private gatherings and state ceremonies, and overseeing the reception of foreign nobles.
  • Their training involved rigorous physical exercises, such as leaping onto horses while in armour, running long distances, and striking forceful blows with weapons to build endurance and strength. They would even perform somersaults and dance vigorously in a steel shirt to adapt to the weight of armour.
  • They were taught to vault over tall chargers and climb perpendicular walls using only their limbs.
  • Squires also practised lance-throwing and other warlike exercises.
  • Their duties included breaking in their master's chargers and teaching younger esquires stable routines. They were also responsible for their master's arms and armour, and performing military duties like rounds, sentry duty, and watches within the castle.
  • When a lord mounted his horse, esquires assisted him, carrying parts of his armour like armlets, helmets, shields, and gauntlets. They also led the knight's warhorse (destrier) until the last moment before battle.
  • In combat, esquires were positioned behind their lord, ready to provide indirect assistance such as helping their master remount if unhorsed, bringing fresh horses, or warding off blows. They were also responsible for taking care of prisoners. They could not fight themselves, but were expected to show great zeal, skill, and courage.
• Pursuivant-at-arms (Intermediate Stage):
  • Before achieving full knighthood, an esquire was often required to serve as a pursuivant-at-arms.
  • In this role, they travelled through foreign countries, either as envoys or ordinary travellers, attending chivalric games and tournaments without directly participating.
  • This stage was crucial for acquiring a comprehensive technical knowledge of military affairs and a deep understanding of refined courtly manners through interaction with distinguished soldiers and high-born ladies.
  • Pursuivants were expected to act honourably, observe precepts of honour and virtue, and prove themselves worthy of knighthood. They actively sought out renowned courts to experience the highest traditions of chivalry and gain favour with heroes and ladies.
• Investiture of Knighthood ("Ordène"):
  • This was a symbolical and sacred ceremony.
  • The aspirant would undergo rituals such as a vigil of arms (a night-watch over his armour), strict fasts, and three nights spent in prayer in a lonely chapel.
  • The ceremony involved a ritualistic bath and dressing in symbolic garments: a snow-white linen shirt(purity), a crimson robe (readiness to shed blood for God and Church), and brown silk trunk-hose(reminder of death and humility).
  • A white girdle was fastened around the loins (purity, avoidance of luxury), and golden spurs were attached to his heels (ardour and docility, obedience to God, trampling worldly riches).
  • A sword was fastened to his side, symbolising his duty to protect the poor and weak, and a white coif placed on his head (stainless soul).
  • After hearing mass, the neophyte, with his sword suspended from his neck, received his spurs, helmet, cuirass, gauntlets, and sword from a noble or noble lady.
  • The ceremony concluded with the colée, where the investing knight struck the new knight across the shoulder with the flat side of the sword, followed by the accolade as a sign of brotherly adoption.
  • His shield, lance, and charger were then brought to him, signifying his readiness to embark on a career of glory, devotion, and combat.
  • The Church's blessing on the knight's sword emphasised its use for "defence of the faith and justice" and to "wound no person unjustly".

Knighthood was not merely a military rank but a moral and religious commitment, embodying the ideals of Christian charity and protection of the weak.

Creation and Degradation of Knights

The investiture of knighthood was a symbolical and solemn ceremony. Prior to the ceremony, the candidate underwent a period of vigil of arms, strict fasts, and three nights spent in prayer in a solitary chapel. Dressed in white garments, he witnessed the consecration of his sword before the altar, signifying the gravity of his commitment under religious auspices.

On the appointed day, after hearing mass, the neophyte received his spurs, helmet, cuirass, gauntlets, and sword from a noble or noble lady. The ceremony concluded with the colée, where the investing knight gently struck the neophyte's shoulder with the flat side of a sword, followed by the accolade, a sign of brotherly recognition.

In contrast, the degradation of a knight was a public and humiliating event. A herald would declare the knight's loss of honour, repeating three times, 'No, it is not so; I see no knight here, I see only a coward who has been false to his plighted faith'. The disgraced individual was then carried to a church on a litter, like a corpse, and the burial service was read over him, marking his social death.

Duels and Tournaments

Chivalry's expression often involved judicial duels and tournaments, though the Church did not extend its protection to these practices.

Judicial duels, of German origin and predating Christian chivalry, were a rough form of combatant justice. The Church indignantly protested the custom of champions for women, children, churches, and convents, striving to dismantle the pagan notion that might equalled right.

While the Church opposed duelling, it could only mitigate its effects rather than eliminate the practice entirely. Modern duels stemmed from the strong individuality and personal dignity of barbarism.

Trial by ordeal, or the judgment of God, which included ordeals by fire, boiling water, the cross, and the sword, preceded judicial duels and subjected even women and princesses to its tests. This form of judgment fell out of favour around the time of Charlemagne, being superseded by the judicial duel in the latter half of the twelfth century.

Chivalry, aligning with the period's customs, favoured this expedient decision-making method. Occasionally, a judge might even be compelled to engage in combat against a condemned criminal. Such duels were typically reserved for crimes punishable by death where witnesses were absent, relying instead on grave suspicions. Exemptions from combat included persons under twenty-one or over sixty, priests, invalids, and women.

Participants swore on the cross and Holy Writ that they carried no charms. The vanquished champion in Normandy and Scandinavia could face hanging or burning alive. The Church excommunicated victorious duellists and denied burial rites to their victims, although its efforts to suppress the practice were largely unsuccessful. Saint Louis, in 1260, attempted to replace judicial duels with trial by evidence, but this reform was only partially enforced even within his own domains.

After the judicial duel fell into disuse in the fifteenth century, single combat persisted among the nobility, often arising from personal affronts, quarrels, or desires for vengeance. The "Battle of the Thirty" in 1351, involving Breton and English knights, exemplifies a duel fought for national honour. Despite stringent edicts from Henri IV and Louis XIII, duelling continued as a means for the nobility to assert their connection to a chivalric and adventurous past.

Tournaments

Once purely violent athletic contests lacking pomp and attended by no ladies in their earliest forms (as seen in the chronicles of Charles the Bald), evolved to reflect the softening manners of the nobility. Tradition credits Geoffrey, the Sire de Preuilli, with their proper inauguration in Brittany in the tenth century. They were proclaimed for significant events like knight promotions or royal marriages. Ladies played a part, and knights would fight for them with various weapons. Coats of arms, emblems of chivalry, are thought to have originated around the First Crusade in the eleventh century, to distinguish the multitude of nobles and knights. Tournaments were popular solemnities, with stands erected for distinguished spectators like kings, queens, and older knights who served as judges. Heralds and pursuivants-at-arms observed and reported on the combat, encouraging younger knights. Ladies would bestow a 'favour', such as a scarf or ribbon, which the knight wore as a distinguishing mark on his shield, lance, or helmet. After the combat, the victor was celebrated with a banquet, a place of honour, and praise in songs and poems. King René's book, from the fifteenth century, provides a detailed account of tournament ceremonies, rules, and equipment.

Decline of Chivalry

Chivalry's decline became evident by the late thirteenth century.

Froissart observed a tendency towards decay and transformation, where the knight's independence, once bound only to God and his lady, devolved into the obsequiousness and pitiful servility of a courtier.

The monarchy's growing influence, coupled with the rise of commerce and the wealth of the middle classes, significantly undermined both Feudalism and chivalry.

The reign of Louis XI, characterised by espionage and cunning, proved fatal to chivalry, leading to a rapid waning of its prestige. Subsequent attempts by French sovereigns, including François I, Henri IV, and Louis XIV, to revive its spirit through brilliant pageantries were unsuccessful, as chivalry, having emerged with the Middle Ages, passed away with them.