A chapter in Military and Religious Life in the Middle Ages and at the Period of the Renaissance

Introduction to Charitable Institutions in the Middle Ages

Christian charity fundamentally transformed society in the Middle Ages, offering a new path for human dignity and addressing the corruption and brutal force prevalent in Greco-Roman and barbarian societies.

The core principles of charity stemmed directly from Christ's teachings, emphasising the blessings upon the poor in spirit and the pure in heart, and the divine command to comfort the poor, sick, and imprisoned.

This new ethos introduced concepts previously unknown to the ancient world: humility and charity.

It saw the wealthy, high-born, and even royalty dedicating themselves to tending the sick in hospitals, demonstrating that the true measure of faith was in service to the most vulnerable.

Early Forms and Influences

From the earliest days of Christianity, the practice of giving alms was strongly advocated, with apostles appointing deacons, such as Saint Laurentius, for their distribution.

Saint Laurentius famously collected and divided the church's material wealth among the poor, declaring them the church's true treasures. This spirit of charity flourished even amidst persecution and significantly expanded following the conversion of Emperor Constantine.

Eastern Roman Empresses played a crucial role in inaugurating an era of widespread Christian charity. Saint Helena, wife of Constantius Chlorus and mother of Constantine, was renowned for her modesty and kindness, actively visiting canonical churches and convents and performing various charitable services.

Her daughter, Pulcheria, continued these good works, and another Pulcheria, grand-daughter of Theodosius, earned the title augusta and was praised for her piety, wisdom, and for transforming her palace into a veritable convent devoted to asceticism and good deeds, marking a golden age for the Church.

Further examples of influential women in early Christian charity included Emmelia, Macrina (aunt and sister of Saint Basilius), and Anthusa (mother of Saint John Chrysostom), all of whom devoted themselves to aiding the poor.

Olympiade, a wealthy widow from Constantinople, distributed her immense fortune to the sick, orphans, widows, the aged, prisoners, and exiles, often supported by ecclesiastical virgins.

The fervent charity emanating from Constantinople had a widespread sympathetic response across the Roman Empire, influencing cities such as Rome, Milan, Lyons, Trèves, and Rheims. Roman ladies like Melanie the Younger, Fabiola, Saint Paulina, and Saint Pammachius, with the support of many other pious women, established some of the earliest formal charitable institutions. Saint Melanie the Younger notably founded the Convent of the Relieving Virgins near Rome, which became a model for similar institutions throughout Italy.

Development in Western Europe

Prelates in the West also embodied the spirit of charity. Saint Germanus, Bishop of Auxerre, exemplified this by feeding, clothing, and comforting the poor, releasing insolvent debtors, ransoming captives, and even selling himself into slavery to rescue a widow's son.

The urgent need to ransom captives due to widespread slavery caused by wars and barbarian invasions in the sixth century was a primary focus of the Church's charitable efforts, with Pope Gregory I dedicating significant resources to this cause.

Royal courts in France further integrated charitable works into society. Saint Clotilda, Queen of the Franks; Saint Albofleda, sister of Clovis; and Saint Radegonda of Thuringia, wife of King Clotaire, who established a hospital at Athies and a monastery at Poitiers, were key figures. Saint Bathilda, a woman of noble birth who became Queen of Neustria, was particularly renowned for her benevolent administration, founding abbeys and increasing the number of hospitals, with Saint Gènes as her almoner and Saint Eloi, Saint Owen, and Saint Leger as her advisors.

Hospitals and Lazar-Houses

The eighth and ninth centuries saw the construction of numerous hospitable houses along major routes connecting France and Italy. Lazar-houses, which emerged around the fifth century, primarily served as a sanitary measure against leprosy, a prevalent and incurable disease often seen as divine punishment. These institutions proliferated in the West as contact with the East increased. Many Hôtels-Dieu, religious asylums, were founded near cathedrals, replacing older infirmaries, such as the famous Hôtel-Dieu in Paris.

Royal Patronage and Expanding Influence (10th-13th Centuries)

The spirit of Christian charity continued to be a distinguishing characteristic of several sovereigns in the tenth century and beyond. Edward the Elder, son of Alfred the Great, was known as the father of the poor and orphan, funding his benevolent institutions from his personal revenues. Canute I, King of the Danes, after his conversion, made significant charitable contributions. Scandinavian kings such as Olaus or Olaf of Sweden and Norway also incorporated charity into their religious and political principles.

Two prominent figures in Northern Europe during the eleventh century were Queen Margaret, wife of Malcolm, King of Scotland, and her daughter, Saint Matilda, wife of Henry I of England. Queen Margaret was celebrated as a mother to the poor and a consoler of the afflicted, viewing her subjects as her extended family. Another Saint Matilda, grandmother and abbess of an Erfurt convent, served as regent during her husband, Emperor Henry the Fowler's, wars and later as a dedicated advisor for justice and clemency, retiring to the vast charitable foundation of Northausen, which housed three thousand maidens.

Under Emperor Henry II the Pious and Empress Cunegunda, charitable establishments, hospitals, and refuges greatly expanded. Cunegunda herself retired to the Kaffung convent she founded, dedicating herself to the care of the poor and sick. Saint Hedwiga, Duchess of Poland and Silesia, established a new model of charity by founding a Carthusian convent at Trebnitz specifically for the education, marriage, and dowry of impoverished girls, feeding a thousand needy persons daily and distributing aid beyond its walls.

Isabella, the sister of King Louis IX of France, founded the Abbey of Longchamps near Paris, modestly titled the Humility of Our Lady. The nuns there educated and supported poor girls and worked with their own hands to make garments for the poor, often joined by ladies of the highest rank.

The Impact of the Crusades and New Orders

The Crusades, while imposing significant burdens, also necessitated and spurred a greater development of works of mercy, particularly due to associated epidemics. This focus on charity became a hallmark of the reigns of Louis VII, Philip Augustus, and especially King Louis IX (1179–1270). King Louis IX, with the strong influence of his mother, Blanche of Castille, enacted the Etablissements de Saint Louis, a wise administrative code that enshrined charitable principles. His notable foundations included the Quinze-vingts, the Maison-Dieu in Paris, and Hostelleries des Postes across the kingdom.

The Crusades were instrumental in the expansion of the Hospitaller Order of Saint Lazarus, which had established two hospitals in Jerusalem by the time of Godefroi de Bouillon's entry in 1099. Louis VII established a lazar-house at Etampes, granting its monks rights akin to a religious order. Henry II of England also founded several lazarettos in his kingdom, including one at Rouen and another for leprous women, whose nurses were required to be noble ladies. The Order of Saint Lazarus received support from figures like Richard Cœur-de-Lion and even admiration from Saladin. Throughout Europe, the Lazarists, adhering to the rules of Saint Augustine, were primarily a hospitaller order, dedicated to visiting the sick, tending to the incurable, and charitably receiving pilgrims and the poor.

The Order of Mercy, founded by Saint Nolasque in the thirteenth century, specialised in the crucial work of ransoming Christian captives, showcasing profound self-devotion.

Later Medieval and Renaissance Charity

Despite ongoing epidemics, charitable missions continued through the efforts of figures like Saint Catherine of Sienna (1347–1380), who distributed her inheritance to the poor and dedicated herself to teaching and preaching salvation. While the Lazarists' purely charitable mission gained widespread security and privileges, the popes initially preferred the military-oriented Knights of Saint John of Jerusalem, hoping to reclaim the Holy Land. However, the Lazarists at Boigny maintained their effective administration of property for the poor, becoming the sole continuously functioning hospitable institution. The charitable spirit of King Louis IX and Queen Blanche inspired many at court, such as Elzéar de Sabran, who volunteered as Lazarists, performing menial tasks, collecting alms, and assisting in the most challenging duties.

In the fifteenth century, Saint Cajetan the Dominican instigated numerous charitable congregations. He established the immense Hospital for Incurables, the Mount of Mercy for the impoverished upper classes, asylums for orphans, and refuges for penitent women in Naples. He also conceived the idea of pawn establishments to combat usury. Margaret of York, wife of Charles the Bold, was noted as one of the most charitable princesses of her era.

The sixteenth century saw Jean de Dieu, a Portuguese gentleman, dedicate his life to healing the wounded and caring for the sick, particularly focusing on the more complex wounds inflicted by firearms. Antoine Yvan, a Frenchman, founded the Order of the Religious Clerks of Mercy to serve orphans, the sick, and the poor. As the Middle Ages transitioned into the Renaissance, Saint Vincent de Paul (early seventeenth century) further organized and disseminated Christian charity throughout society, leaving a lasting legacy.